THE 


AMERK  AN   PRINTER: 


Ji  panuiil  of  f  spgrnjls, 


CONTAINING 


('O^FPLKTK  INSTHrCTIONS  FOR   BKdlXXKRS. 


AS  WELL  AS 


practical  Sirecttoiis  for  Panaging  all  gepartmenls 
of  a  printing  ©ffia. 

WITH  SEVERAL   USEFUL  TABLES, 

SCHEMES    FOR    IMPOSING    FORMS    IN    EVERY    VARIETY, 

HINTS  TO   AUTHORS   AND  PUBLISHERS, 

ETC.    ETC. 


THOMAS    .MA('K1:L1.AR. 

w 


PHILADELPHIA: 
\!\(MsM'yiJ;AH,  SMITHS   A"  JOKOAX. 

1867. 


Hereby^  tongues  are  kno^wtiy  knonjjledge  gro^weth,  judgment 
increaseth,  books  are  dispersed^  the  Scripture  is  read,  stories  be 
opened,  times  compared,  truth  discerned,  falsehood  detected  and 
m:ith  finger  pointed,  and  all  {as  I  said)  through  the  benefit 
of  Printing,  fox's  martyrs. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1866,  by 
L,  Johnson  &  Company,  in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the 


^ 


Eastern  District  t»f  Pennsylvania. 

—-d:'^3}er 


^ 

^^0 
^^^ 


^hir^d  :Stiition* 


PREFACE. 


Usefulness  rather  than  originality  has  been  aimed 
at  in  the  preparation  of  the  American  Printer,  which 
is  offered  as  an  improvement  on  the  typographical  work 
formerly  published  by  us.  In  addition  to  the  results 
of  actual  personal  experience  embodied  in  the  volume, 
information  has  been  gathered  from  various  publications, 
such  as  Ames  and  Dibdiv/s  Typographical  Antiquities, 
Thomases  History  of  Printing,  Timperley^s  Dictionary  of 
Printers  and  Printing,  Savage's  Dictionary  of  Printing, 
Johnsoji/s  Typographia,  Chambers's  Encyclopcedia,  Bead- 
neWs  Guide  to  Typography,  and  the  other  books  referred 
to  in  the  notes.  The  work  has  been  prepared  amid  the 
manifold  interruptions  incident  to  business  life;  yet  we 
think  nothing  has  been  overlooked  that  is  essential  for 
the  instruction  of  the  learner  or  for  the  assistance  of  the 
workman. 

Besides  the  matter  relating  to  practical  typography, 
the  volume  contains  a  sketch  of  the  discovery  of  printing, 
and  notices  of  type-founding,  stereotyping,  electrotyping, 


2  PREFACE. 

and  lithography.  The  implements  employed  in  typo- 
graphy are  describe i  and  their  uses  explained;  and 
complete  schemes  for  imposition  are  laid  down.  The 
valuable  tables  and  the  plans  of  cases  for  various  lan- 
guages, and  for  music  and  labour-saving  rule,  will  be 
found  extremely  useful;  as  well  as  the  extensive  Ksts 
of  abbreviations  and  of  foreign  words  and  phrases,  and 
orthographical  hints. 

Special  attention  has  been  given  in  setting  forth  the 
functions  and  duties  of  the  foreman  and  proof-reader, 
so  that  the  operations  of  an  office  may  be  prosecuted 
with  efficiency,  comfort,  and  economy. 

Authors  and  publishers,  as  well  as  typographical  ama- 
teurs, may  consult  the  volume  with  profit ;  and,  indeed, 
any  intelligent  person  will  find  it  a  serviceable  com- 
panion. 


CONTENTS. 


PAQB 

Rise  and  Progress  op  Printing 9-37 

Discovery  of  Printing  —  Laurentius  Coster  —  Geinsfleisch  — 
Giitanberg — Faust — Bible  printed — Peter  Schoeffer — Caxton — 
Ancient  typographical  peculiarities  —  Printing  introduced  into 
America— Type-founding  in  Europe — In  America — Stereotyping 
— Electrotyping — Lithography — Engraving — Walk  over  a  type- 
foundry. 


Implements  or  Tools  of  the  Art 38-102 

Types — Roman  letter — Italic — Black — Anglo-Saxon — Names  and 
sizes  of  type — Gradations  of  type — Table  of  proportions  of  type — 
Fount  of  letter — Capitals — Small  capitals — Points — Apostrophe — 
Hyphen — Parenthesis — References — Accents — Numerals — Arabic 
figures — Old-style  figures — Cancelled  figures  —  Fractions  —  Signs 
—  Metal  rule — Braces — Spaces  —  Two-line  letter — Quadrates — 
Quotations  and  quotation  furniture — Hollow  quadrates — Circular 
quadrates — Leads — Flowers  and  borders — Labour-saving  rule — 
Rule  case — Runic  alphabets — Anglo-Saxon  alphabet  and  plp.n  of 
cases — German  alphabet  and  plan  of  cases — Greek — Greek  cases 
— Hebrew — Hebrew  cases — Music  composition — Music  cases. 


Composition 103-120 

Remarks — Requisites  in  an  apprentice — American  cases — Posi- 
tion of  a  compositor — Laying  type — Distributing — Composing 
—  Spacing — Justifying — Head-lines — Notes — Blanking — Para- 
graphs — Indexes — Titl  es  —  Dedications  —  Con  tents  —  Prefaces — 
Signaturing — Errata — Ironical  rules — Advice  to  apprentices. 

3 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Imposition 121-178 

General  remarks — Tying  up  pages — Laying  pages — Making  up 
furniture — Making  margin — Locking  up  forms — Memoranda — 
Schemes  for  imposing,  from  folio  to  128mo. 


Proof-reading  and  Correcting 179-195 

Corrections  essential  —  Qualifications  of  a  reader — Should  be  a 
printer — Indebtedness  of  authors  to  proof-readers — Process  of 
reading — Proof  record — Errors  made  in  correcting — Two  readers 
desirable — Punctuation — Alterations  in  proof — Stower's  re- 
marks— Revise — Table  of  proof-marks,  with  explanations — Cor- 
recting in  the  metal — Capricious  alterations — Proper  method  of 
correcting — Overrimning — Hints  to  authors — T^ble  of  signatures. 


The  Foreman  or  Overseer 196-209 

General  duties  —  Treatment  of  compositors  —  Punctuality  — 
Morning  duties — Knowledge  of  all  materials  on  hand — Order — 
Overseeing  w^ork — Regulating  takes  of  copy — Prompt  reading 
and  correcting — Memorandum  — Press -Book — Press  duties — 
Warehouse — Casting  off  copy — Managing  hurried  work — Com- 
panionships— Rules  to  be  observed  in  a  printing-office. 


The  Press  and  its  Working 210-270 

History  of  the  printing-press — Blaeu,  its  first  improver — Ramage 
press — Stanhope  press — Clymer  or  Columbian  press — Smith 
press — Washington  press — Adams's  bed-and-platen  power-press 
— Invention  of  the  Cylinder  press — Frederick  Konig — William 
Nicholson — Dr.  Kinsley — Applegath  and  Cowper — Account  of  the 
house  of  R.  Hoe  &  Co.— A.  B.  Taylor  &  Co.— Richard  M.  Hoe's 
Lightning  press — Bullock  press — Railroad-ticket  printing  and 
numbering  machines — Job  presses — Ruggles,  Adams,  Hoe,  Wells, 
Gordon,  Degener,  Seth  Adams — Setting  up  a  Washington  press 
and  roller-stand — Composition  rollers  —  Covering  tympans  — 
Wetting  paper — Blankets — Making  ready  a  form  —  Pulling — 
Rules  and  remedies — Ley-trough — Putting  up  an  Adams  press — 
Making  ready  on  cylinder  presses — Fine  hand-press  work — Print- 
ing wood-cuts — Card  printing — Gold  printing — Bronze  printing — 
Colour  printing — Dry  colours — How  to  multiply  colours — Con- 
trast of  colours— How  to  treat  wodd  type. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Warehouse  Department 271-270 

Warehouseman — Warehouse-Book  —  Receipt  of  paper  and  de- 
livery of  sheets — Giving  out  paper  to  wet — Over-sheets — Hang- 
ing up  paper  to  Ary — Taking  down  sheets — Filling  in  and  press- 
ing—  Counting  and  putting  away — Sizes  of  paper — Table  for 
giving  out  paper  for  a  thousand  copies. 


Orthographical 277-291 

Discrepancies — a  or  an  before  a  vowel  or  silent  h — able  and  ihle — 
im  or  in  and  em  or  en — in  and  un — ise  and  ize — or  and  our — sion 
and  tion — Farther  and  further — Peas  and  pease — Omission  of  s  in 
the  possessive  case — Formation  of  plural  of  words  compounded 
of  a  noun  and  an  adjective — Pointing  of  numbers,  &c. — Deriva- 
tion of  words — Rules  for  spelling — Plurals  of  nouns. 


Law  op  Copyright 292,293 

Subjects  of  copyright — Writings  or  drawings — Designs  of  form — 
Inventions  in  the  useful  arts — Copyright  and  patent-right— Per- 
sons entitled  to  copyright — Privilege  of  foreigners — Period  of 
copyright — Formalities  in  securing  copyright — Form  of  notice 
— Renewal  of  copyright — Smithsonian  Institute  and  Congress 
Library  not  entitled  to  copies  of  books  copyrighted. 


Technical  Terms 294-298 

Abbreviations 299-311 

Foreign  Words  and  Phrases 312-326 

Index 327-336 


1* 


"  "   *    "  "     t^  ,^  i    P  V' 
U  be   bi    bo  hn 


|/ab  ?t)  ib  o\i  m 

tntl  tfltii^^  tt^out  trefpaf  fe^a^KW 

|uMi\Mi^6.<)uiJ  mot  into  temtrtfi  ' 
ltifi>mjiL^(i't>er«^  ixm,  evil 


HORN-BOOK   OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 


^Kc  ^^^Txicvicctn  QPrinicr, 


^t  ^oit0  0f  i^i  f  rinler. 


Pick  and  click 

Goes  the  type  in  the  stick, 
As  the  printer  stands  at  his  case; 
His  eyes  glance  quick,  and  his  fingers  pick 

The  type  at  a  rapid  pace; 
And  one  by  one  as  the  letters  go, 
Words  are  piled  up  steady  and  slow- 
Steady  and  slow, 

But  still  they  grow, 
And  words  of  fire  they  soon  will  glow; 
Wonderful  words,  that  without  a  sound 
Traverse  the  earth  to  its  utmost  bound; 

Words  that  shall  make 

The  tyrant  quake. 
And  the  fetters  of  the  oppress'd  shall  break. 
Words  that  can  crumble  an  army's  might, 
Or  treble  its  strength  in  a  righteous  fight, 
Yet  the  type  they  look  but  leaden  and  dumb. 
As  he  puts  them  in  place  with  finger  and  thumb; 

But  the  printer  smiles. 

And  his  work  beguiles 
By  chanting  a  song  as  the  letters  he  piles. 

With  pick  and  click, 
Like  the  world's  chronometer,  tick!  tick!  tick! 

O,  where  is  the  man  with  such  simple  tools 

Can  govern  the  world  as  I  ? 
With  a  printing  press,  an  iron  stick. 

And  a  little  leaden  die. 
With  paper  of  white,  and  ink  of  black, 
I  support  the  Right,  and  the  Wrong  attack. 

Say,  where  is  he,  or  who  may  he  be, 
That  can  rival  the  printer's  power? 

To  no  monarchs  that  live  the  wall  doth  he  give,— 
Their  sway  lasts  only  an  hour; 

While  the  printer  still  grows,  and  God  only  knows 
When  his  might  shall  cease  to  tower! 


8 


THE 


AMERICAN  PRINTER 


RISE    AND   PROGRESS    OF   PRINTING. 


DISCOVERY  OF  FEINTING. 

HE  art  which  perpetuates  the  history  and 
achievements  of  all  the  arts  and  sciences 
has  not  with  certainty  preserved  the  name 
of  its  own  discoverer.  At  all  events,  the 
point  is  so  dubious  that  several  cities  have 
advanced  rival  claims  to  the  honour  of  the 
invention.  We  agree  with  Isaiah  Thomas 
in  the  opinion  that  the  following  points  may 
be  regarded  as  established : — 

1.  That  the  cities  of  Haerlem  in  Holland, 
and  Mentz  and  Strasburg  in  Germany,  all 
claim  the  honour  of  being  the  birthplace  of 
the  art  of  printing. 

2.  That  Laurentius,  sometimes  called  Cos- 
ter, Koster,  or  Kustos,  has  the  best  claim  to 
the  honour  of  the  discovery,  which  was 
made  about  the  year  1429,  or,  as  several 
writers  state,  not  earlier  than  1422,  nor  later 
than  1436. 

3.  That  he  lived  at  Haerlem,  was  a  man 
of  large  property,  had  a  lucrative  office  under  the  govern- 
ment, and  there  practised  printing  in  its  original  rude  state. 

4.  That  Laurentius,  for  some  time  after  he  began  printing, 
used  wooden  blocks  or  plates,  on  which  he  engraved,  or 
carved,  in  pages,  &c.  the  words  for  several  small  works;  in 

9 


10  DISCOVERY  OF  PktNTING, 

some  of  which  were  pictures,  cut  in  the  blocks  with  the  words. 
Tliese  he  printed  only  on  one  side  of  vellum,  or  paper,  and 
doubled  and  pasted  the  leaves  together,  thus  forming  them 
into  books.  After  practising  this  way  for  a  few  years,  he  in- 
vented and  used  separate  wooden  types,  but  never  attempted 
to  cut  or  cast  types  in  metal.* 


*  "About  one  hundred  and  twenty  years  ago,  Laurence  Zanssen  Coster  in- 
habited a  decent  and  fashionable  house  in%the  city  of  Ilaerlem,  situated  on  the 
market-place,  opposite  the  royal  palace.  The  name  of  Coster  was  assumed,  and 
inherited  from  his  ancestors,  who  had  long  enjoyed  the  honourable  and  lucrative 
office  of  coster  or  sexton  to  the  church.  This  man  deserves  to  be  restored  to  the 
honour  of  being  the  first  inventor  of  printing,  of  which  he  has  been  unjustly  de- 
prived by  others,  who  have  enjoyed  the  praises  due  to  him  alone.  As  he  was 
walking  in  the  wood  contiguous  to  the  city,  which  was  the  general  custom  of  the 
richer  citizens  and  men  of  leisure,  in  the  afternoon  and  on  holidays,  he  began  to 
cut  letters  on  the  bark  of  the  beech;  with  these  letters  he  enstamped  marks 
upon  paper  in  a  contrary  direction,  in  the  manner  of  a  seal,  until  at  length  he 
formed  a  few  lines  for  his  own  amusement  and  for  the  use  of  the  children  of  his 
brother-in-law.  This  succeeding  so  well,  he  attempted  greater  things;  and,  being 
a  man  of  genius  and  reflection,  he  invented,  with  the  aid  of  his  brother  or  son-in- 
law,  Thomas  Pietrison,  a  thicker  and  more  adhesive  ink,  as  the  common  ink  was 
too  thin  and  made  blotted  marks.  With  this  ink  he  was  able  to  print  blocks  and 
figures,  to  which  he  added  letters.  I  have  seen  specimens  of  his  j)rinting  in  this 
manner :  in  the  beginning  he  printed  on  one  fide  only.  This  was  a  Dutch  book, 
entitled  Spiegal  enser  Behoudenisse.  That  it  was  one  of  the  first  books  printed 
after  the  invention  of  the  art,  appears  from  the  leaves,  which  are  pasted  together, 
that  the  naked  sides  might  not  be  offensive  to  the  eyes ;  and  none  at  first  were 
printed  in  a  more  perfect  manner.  As  this  new  species  of  traffic  attracted  nume- 
rous customers,  thus  did  the  profits  arising  from  it  increase  his  love  for  the  art 
and  his  diligence  in  the  exercise  of  it. 

"  lie  engaged  workmen,  which  was  the  source  of  the  mischief.    Among  these 

workmen  was  one  Jan :  whether  his  surname  be  that  of  Faust,  or  any  other, 

is  of  no  great  importance  to  me,  as  I  will  not  disturb  the  dead,  whose  consciences 
must  have  smote  them  sufficiently  while  living.  This  Jan,  who  assisted  at  the 
printing-press  under  oath,  after  he  had  learned  the  art  of  casting  the  types,  set- 
ting them,  and  other  articles  belonging  to  the  art,  and  thought  himself  suffi- 
ciently instructed,  having  watched  the  opportunity,  as  he  could  not  find  a  better, 
he  packed  up  the  types  and  the  other  articles  on  Christmas  eve,  while  the  family 
was  engaged  in  celebrating  the  festival,  and  stole  away  with  them.  lie  first  fled 
to  Amsterdam,  thence  to  Cologne,  until  he  could  establish  himself  at  Mentz,  as  a 
secure  place,  w^here  he  might  open  shop  and  reap  the  fruits  of  his  knavery.  It  is 
a  known  fact  that  within  the  twelve  months  (that  is,  in  the  year  1440)  he  pub- 
lished the  Alexmidri  Galli  Doctrinale  (a  grammar  at  that  time  in  high  repute), 
with  Petri  Hispani  Tractatihus  Logicis,  with  the  same  letters  which  Laurens  had 
used.  These  were  undoubtedly  the  first  products  of  his  press.  These  are  the 
principal  circumstances  that  I  have  collected  from  creditable  persons  far  ad- 


DISCOVERY  OF  PRINTING.  H 

5.  That  Laurentius  employed  several  servants  in  his  busi- 
ness ;  among  whom  was  John  Geinsfleisch,  Sr.  There  were 
two  brothers  of  that  name :  the  younger  was  sometimes  dis- 
tinguished by  the  name  of  Gutenberg.  He  was  an  ingenious 
artist,  and  lived  at  Strasburg. 

6.  That  John  Geinsfleisch,  Sr.,  communicated,  first,  the 
theory  of  the  art,  and,  afterward,  the  practice  of  it,  to  his 
younger  brother;  whom,  for  the  sake  of  distinction,  I  shall 
hereafter  call  Gutenberg. 

7.  That  Laurentius  followed  printing  during  the  remainder 
of  his  life;  and  that,  after  his  death,  the  business  was  con- 
tinued in  his  family  at  Haerlem  for  many  years. 

8.  That  John  Geinsfleisch,  the  servant  of  Laurentius,  about 
the  time  that  his  master  died,  with  the  aid  of  a  fellow-servant 
who  was  his  accomplice,  took  an  oj)portunity,  on  a  festival,  to 
steal  a  considerable  j)art  of  his  master's  wooden  types,  with 
other  parts  of  his  printing  apparatus,  and  absconded;  and, 
having  conveyed  liis  plunder  to  Mentz,  liis  native  place,  he 
there  commenced  printing,  about  the  year  1440,  with  the  t^^pes 
he  had  stolen  from  his  master. 

9.  That,  after  Geinsfleisch  settled  at  Mentz,  he  was  assisted 
with  money,  &c.  by  John  Fust,  alias  Faust,  alia^  Faustus,  a 
rich  and  very  respectable'-  man ;  who,  consequently,  shared 
the  profits  with  Geinsfleisch.  Faust  and  Geinsfleisch  after- 
ward formed  a  company,  and  admitted  as  a  partner  John 
Meidenbachius,  with  some  other  persons. 

10.  That  Gutenberg,  the  younger  brother  of  Geinsfleisch, 
continued  at  Strasburg  till  1444,  and  was  in  various  employ- 
ments ;  but  he  made  great  efforts  toward  attaining  the  art  of 
printing  with  cut  metal  types.  Ho  could  not,  however,  bring 
the  art  to  any  degree  of  perfection.  It  is  believed  by  some 
that  he  and  the  partners  with  whom  he  was  concerned  printed 
a  few  very  small  works.  Their  performances  have  all  disap- 
peared, and,  as  far  as  known,  have  been  entirely  destroyed. 
Although,  whilst  at  Strasburg,  Gutenberg  had  made  consider- 
able progress  in  improving  the  art,  yet,  having  quarrelled 
mth  his  partners,  and  being  involved  in  lawsuits,  he  quitted 
that  city  and  joined  his  brother  at  Mentz. 

vanced  in  years,  which  they  have  transmitted  like  a  flaminjs;  torcli  from  hand  tc 
hand;  I  have  also  met  with  others  who  have  confirmed  the  same,"  &c.  &c. — 
Hadrianus  Jiinius,  1578. 


12  DISCOVERY  OF  PRINTING, 

11.  The  two  brothers  had  the  management  of  the  printing 
business  at  Mentz,  and  they  united  their  endeavours  to  form 
a  fount  of  metal  types  with  cut  faces.  Their  method  of  making 
these  types  was,  lirst  to  cast  the  shanks,  or  bodies,  to  a  suit- 
able size,  and  afterward  to  engrave  or  cut  the  letters  on 
them.  After  a  labour  of  several  years,  they  accomplished 
ihe  undertaking;  and  in  1450  a  part  of  the  Bible  appeared 
from  their  press,  which  was  printed  with  those  types.*  The 
same  year,  and  very  soon  after  they  began  to  work  with  those 
types,  the  partnersliip  between  the  brothers,  Faust  &  Com- 
pany, was  dissolved,  and  a  connection  between  Faust  and 
Gutenberg  commenced ;  but,  a  difference  between  them  arising, 
an  action  at  law  was  instituted  by  Faust  for  money  advanced 
to  Gutenberg,  and  their  joint  concern  in  business  ended  in 
1455.  After  this,  Gutenberg  was  assisted  by  Conrad  Humery, 
Syndic  of  Mentz,  and  others ;  and  this  new  company  opened 
another  printing-house  in  that  city.  Faust  also  continued  the 
business,  and  took  into  partnership  one  of  his  servants,  called 
Peter  Schoeffer,  an  ingenious  man,  who  had  become  very  skil- 
ful in  the  printing  business. 

12.  That  Schoeffer,  in  1456,  completed  the  invention  of  metallic 
types  by  casting  them  with  faces.  "  He  privately  cut  matrices 
for  the  whole  alphabet ;  and,  when  he  showed  his  master  the 
types  cast  from  these  matrices,  Faust  was  so  much  pleased 
that  he  gave  Schoeffer  his  only  daughter  in  marriage."  There 
were  at  lirst  many  difficulties  with  these  types,  as  there  had 
been  with  those  of  wood  and  those  that  were  cut  on  metal: 
one  was  owing  to  the  softness  of  the  metal,  which  would  not 
bear  forcible  pressing ;  but  this  defect,  as  well  as  some  others, 
was  soon  remedied.  The  first  book  printed  with  the  improved 
types  was  Durandi  Rationale.    It  was  not  finished  till  1459. 

From  these  facts,  it  appears  that  the  rudimental  discovery 
of  the  art  may  be  fairly  allotted  to  Laurentius  of  Haerlem ; 
the  invention  and  improvement  of  metal  cut-face  types  be- 
long to  Geinsfleisch  and  his  brother  Gutenberg ;  the  practical 
and  final  completion  of  the  art  by  the  invention  of  metal 
types  cast  with  faces  is  due  to  Peter  Schoeffer,  of  Mentz.t 


*  Polydore  Virgil  mentions  that  metal  types  with  cut  faces  were  first  thought 
of  in  1442. 

t  For  a  more  detailed  account,  see  Thomas's  Histm-y  of  Printing,  Ames's  and 
Dibdin's  Typographical  Antiquities,  et  al. 


ANCIENT  PECULIARITIES,  13 

The  knowledge  and  practice  of  the  art  were  gradually  ex- 
tended over  Europe.  A  press  was  established  at  Boulogne  as 
early  as  1462 ;  one  at  Paris  in  1464 ;  and  another  at  Borne  in 
1466.  Iceland  had  its  printing-office  in  1530,  at  which  a  Bible 
was  printed  in  1584. 

William  Caxton  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  art  in  Ger- 
many, carried  it  into  practice  at  Westminster  in  England,  and 
in  1474  printed  a  book  entitled  The  Game  of  Chess,  Though  at 
that  time  over  sixty  years  old,  he  was  remarkable  for  his  in- 
dustrious habit.  He  was  possessed  of  good  sense  and  sound 
judgment ;  steady,  persevering,  active,  zealous,  and  liberal  in 
his  devices  for  that  important  art  which  he  introduced  into 
England,  labouring  not  only  as  a  printer,  but  as  translator 
and  author.  The  productions  of  his  press  amount  to  sixty- 
four.  In  the  churchwardens'  books  of  St.  Margaret's  Parish, 
Westminster,  his  death  is  thus  recorded : — ''  1491.  Item,  atte 
bureyng  of  William  Caxton,  for  iiii.  torches  vj5.  viijd.  Item, 
for  the  belle  atte  same  bureyng,  vjcZ." 

ANCIENT  PECULIARITIES. 

The  pages  were  either  large  or  small  folios,  but  sometimes 
quartos ;  the  smaller  sizes  were  not  in  use. 

The  leaves  were  without  running  title,  direction-word,  num- 
ber of  pages,  or  divisions  into  paragraphs. 

The  character  itself  was  a  rude  old  Gothic  mixed  with 
Secretary,  designed  to  imitate  the  handwriting  of  the  times ; 
the  words  were  printed  so  close  to  one  another  that  the  matter 
was  difficult  and  tedious  to  be  read,  even  by  those  who  were 
used  to  manuscripts  and  to  this  method,  and  often  led  the  in- 
attentive reader  into  mistakes. 

Ancient  printers  did  not  divide  words  at  the  ends  of  lines  by 
hyphens.  To  avoid  divisions,  they  used  vowels  with  a  mark 
of  abbreviation  to  denote  that  one  or  more  letters  were  omitted 
in  the  word :  e.  g,  copose  for  compose,  copletio  for  completion, 
&c.  No  punctuation-marks  were  used,  except  the  colon  and 
full  point ;  but  an  oblique  stroke  ( / )  was  after  a  while  intro- 
^  duced,  for  which  the  comma  was  finally  substituted. 

Orthography  was  various  and  often  arbitrary,  and  syntax 
was  disregarded.  Proper  names  and  sentences  were  often 
begun  with  small  letters,  as  well  as  the  first  words  in  lines  of 
poetry. 

2 


14  PRINTING  IN  AMERICA. 

Blanks  were  left  for  the  places  of  titles,  initial  letters,  and 
other  ornaments,  to  be  supplied  afterward  by  illuminators, 
whose  ingenious  art,  though  in  vogue  before  and  at  that  time, 
did  not  long  survive  the  masterly  improvements  made  by 
the  printers  in  this  branch  of  their  art.  These  ornaments 
were  exquisitely  fine,  and  curiously  variegated  with  the  most 
beautiful  colours,  and  even  with  gold  and  silver ;  the  margins, 
likewise,  were  frequently  charged  with  a  variety  of  figures,  of 
saints,  birds,  beasts,  monsters,  flowers,  &c.,  which  had  some- 
times relation  to  the  contents  of  the  page,  though  often  none 
at  all.    These  embellishments  were  often  very  costly. 

The  name  of  the  printer,  place  of  his  residence,  &c.  were 
either  wholly  neglected  or  put  at  the  end  of  the  book,  not 
without  some  pious  ejaculation  or  doxology. 

The  date  was  likewise  omitted,  or  involved  in  some  cramped, 
circumstantial  design,  or  printed  either  at  full  length  or  in 
numerical  letters,  and  sometimes  partly  one  and  partly  the 
other :  thus.  One  Thousand  CCCC  and  Ixxiiii ;  but  always  at 
the  end  of  the  book. 

There  was  no  variety  of  character,  nor  intermixture  of  Ro- 
man and  Italic,— which  were  of  later  invention ;  but  the  pages 
were  all  printed  in  a  Gothic  letter  of  the  same  size  through- 
out. 

About  1469-70,  alphabetical  tables  of  the  first  words  of  each 
chapter  were  introduced,  as  a  guide  to  the  binder.  Catch- 
words (now  generally  abolished)  were  first  used  at  Venice,  by 
Vindeline  de  Spire.    The  inventor  of  signatures  is  unknown. 

PRINTING  IN  AMERICA. 

The  first  press  introduced  into  America  was  at  Lima, 
Peru,  about  the  year  1590,  and  the  next  into  Mexico,  in  1600. 

Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  is  entitled  to  the  distinction  of 
having  the  first  printing-press  in  ]S"orth  America,  which  was 
under  the  charge  of  Stephen  Daye.  For  this  press  the  colony 
was  mainly  indebted  to  the  Rev.  Jesse  Glover,  a  noncon- 
formist minister  possessed  of  a  considerable  estate,  who  had 
left  England  to  settle  among  his  friends  in  Massachusetts. 
Some  gentlemen  of  Amsterdam  also  "  gave  towards  furnish- 
ing of  a  printing-press  with  letters,  forty-nine  pounds  and 
something  more."  This  was  about  1638.  The  first  book  issued 
was  the  Bay  Psalm-Book^  in  1640. 


■      TYPE-FOUNDING  IN  EUROPE.  15 

The  first  book  issued  in  the  Middle  Colonies  was  an 
Almanac,  printed  by  William  Bradford  in  1685,  near  Phila- 
delphia.* Bradford  was  brought  out  from  England  in  1682 
by  William  Penn,  who  was  desirous  to  give  his  prospective 
colony  the  benefit  of  a  printing-press.  As  the  government  of 
Pennsylvania  became  very  restrictive  in  regard  to  the  press, 
Bradford  in  1693  removed  to  New  York,  and  was  appointed 
printer  to  that  colony,  where,  in  connection  with  his  business, 
he  established  in  1725  the  New  York  Gazette,  the  first  news- 
paper published  there.  He  died  May  23,  1752,  after  an  active 
and  useful  life  of  eighty-nine  years. 

The  first  newspaper  in  America  was  the  Bosto7i  News  Letter, 
which  was  first  issued  by  John  Campbell  on  Monday,  April 
24,  1704:  it  was  regularly  published  for  nearly  seventy- two 
years.  The  second  was  the  Boston  Gazette,  begun  December 
21,  1719.  The  third  was  the  American  Weekly  Mercury,  issued 
in  Philadelphia  on  December  22,  1719.  James  Franklin,  an 
elder  brother  of  Benjamin,  established  the  New  England  Cou- 
rant,  August  17,  1721. 

TYPE-FOUNDING  IN  EUROPE. 

For  a  long  period  after  the  discovery  of  printing,  it  seems 
that  type-founding,  printing,  and  binding  went  under  the 
general  term  of  printing,  and  that  printers  cast  the  types  used 

*  Two  copies  of  this  Almauac  are  known  to  be  in  existence.  We  give  the 
Address  of 

THE  PRINTER  TO  THE  READERS. 

Hereby  underftand  that  after  great  charge  &  Trouble,  I  have  brought  that  GREAT 
Art  &  Mystery  of  Printing  into  this  part  of  America;  believing  it  may  be  of 
great  fervice  to  you  in  feveral  refpects ;  hoping  to  find  encouragement,  not  only  in 
this  Almanack,  but  what  elfe  I  fliall  enter  upon  for  the  ufe  &  fervice  of  the  Inhabitants 
of  thefe  Parts.  Some  irregularities  there  be  in  this  Diary,  which  I  defire  you  to  pafs 
by  this  year;  for  being  lately  come  hither,  my  materials  were  mifplaced  &  out  of  order, 
whereupon  I  was  forced  to  ufe  Figures  &  Letters  of  various  Sizes :  but  underftanding 
the  want  of  fomething  of  this  nature,  8c  being  importuned  thereto,  I  ventured  to  make 
public  this ;  defiring  you  to  accept  thereof;  &  by  the  next  (as  I  find  encouragement) 
fhall  endeavour  to  have  things  compleat.  And  for  the  eafe  of  Clarks,  Scriveniers,  &c., 
I  propofe  to  print  blank  Bills,  Bonds,  Letters  of  Attorney,  Indentures,  Warrants,  etc., 
&  what  elfe  prefents  itfelf,  wherein  I  fhall  be  ready  to  ferve  you ;  and  remain  your 
friend.  W.  BRADFORD. 

Philadelphia,  the 
loth  month,  1685. 


16  TYPE-FOUNDINQ  IN  AMERICA, 

by  them,  and  printed  and  bound  the  works  executed  in  their 
establishments.  Type-founding  became  a  distinct  calling  early 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  A  decree  of  the  Star  Chamber, 
made  July  11,  1637,  ordained  the  following  regulations  con- 
cerning English  founders : — 

"  That  there  shall  be  four  founders  of  letters  for  printing, 
and  no  more. 

"That  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  or  the  Bishop  of 
London,  with  six  other  high  commissioners,  shall  supply  the 
places  of  those  four  as  they  shall  become  void. 

"  That  no  master-founder  shall  keep  above  two  apprentices 
at  one  time. 

*'  That  all  journeyman-founders  be  employed  by  the  mas- 
ters of  the  trade,  and  that  idle  journeymen  be  compelled  to 
work,  upon  pain  of  imprisonment  and  such  other  punishment 
as  the  court  shall  think  fit. 

"  That  no  master-founder  of  letters  shall  employ  any  other 
person  in  any  work  belonging  to  the  casting  or  founding  of 
letters  than  freemen  or  apprentices  to  the  trade,  save  only  in 
pulling  off  the  knots  of  metal  hanging  at  the  ends  of  the  letters 
when  they  are  first  cast ;  in  which  work  every  master-founder 
may  employ  one  boy  only,  not  bound  to  the  trade." 

By  the  same  decree,  the  number  of  master-printers  in  Eng- 
land was  limited  to  twenty. 

Regulations  like  the  above  were  in  force  till  1690.  The 
"polyglot  founders,"  as  they  have  been  called,  were  suc- 
'  ceeded  by  Joseph  Moxon  and  others.  But  the  English  were 
unable  to  compete  with  the  superior  productions  of  the  Dutch 
founders,  until  the  advent  of  William  Caslon,  who,  by  the 
beauty  and  excellence  of  his  type,  surpassed  his  Batavian 
competitors,  when  the  importation  of  foreign  type  ceased,  and 
his  founts  were,  in  turn,  exported  to  the  Continent. 

TYPE-FOUNDING  IN  AMEBIC  A, 

A  FOUNDRY,  principally  for  German  type,  was  established 
at  Germantown,  Pennsylvania,  about  the  year  1735,  by  Chris- 
topher Saur  (or  Sower),  a  printer,  who  executed  in  German  the 
first  quarto  Bible  printed  in  America,  as  well  as  other  valuable 
works  in  the  German  language.  Three  editions  were  printed  of 
the  Bible,— viz.  in  the  years  1743,  1763,  and  1776,  the  latter  two  by 
his  son.    In  1739,  Saur  published  a  newspaper  in  Germantown. 


TYPE-FOUNDINO  IN  AMERICA,  I7 

An  abortive  attempt  was  made  about  1768  to  set  up  a 
foundry  at  Boston,  by  a  Mr.  Mitchelson,  from  Scotland,  and 
another  in  Connecticut,  by  a  Mr.  Buck.  In  1775,  Dr.  Franklin 
brought  from  Europe  to  Philadelphia  the  materials  for  a 
foundry ;  but  little  use  was  made  of  them. 

John  Baine,  a  type-founder  of  Edinburgh,  sent  a  relative  to 
this  country  with  tools  for  a  foundry  at  the  close  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary War,  and  soon  after  came  over  himself.  They  car- 
ried on  the  business  till  1790,  when  Mr.  Baine  died,  and  his 
kinsman  returned  to  Scotland. 

A  Dutch  founder  afterward  settled  at  New  York,  and  cast 
Dutch  and  German  faces,  which  Avere  considered  handsome, 
though  his  Roman  styles  were  very  poor.  Want  of  money 
prevented  his  success.* 

In  1796,  type-founding  was  commenced  in  Philadelphia,  by 
Archibald  Binny  and  James  Ronaldson,  natives  of  the  city  of 
Edinburgh,  where  Binny  had  carried  on  the  same  business. 
Their  assortment  was  not  extensive,  but  it  embraced  the 
essential  founts, — Brevier,  Bourgeois,  Long  Primer,  Small 
Pica,  Pica,  and  two-line  letters.  They  were  obliging  and 
attentive,  and  in  twenty  years  made  a  fortune,  f  They  im- 
proved their  foundry  according  to  the  increase  of  printing  and 
the  consequent  demands  of  the  trade,  extending  their  assort- 
ment from  Pearl,  of  180  lines  in  a  foot,  to  12-line  Pica,  having 
6  lines.   Binny  made  an  important  improvement  in  the  type- 


*  For  the  remainder  of  this  article  we  axe  largely  Indebted  to  the  venerable 
George  Bruce,  of  New  York. 

t  After  the  retirement  of  Binny  &  Ronaldson,  Richard  Ronaldson  carried  on 
the  business  of  this  foundry  until  1833,  when  he  in  turn  was  succeeded  by  Law- 
rence Johnson  and  George  F.  Smith.  Mr.  Johnson,  a  man  of  energy  and  enter- 
prise, had  introduced  stereotyping  into  Philadelphia,  and  now  both  callings  were 
incorporated.  Ten  years  afterward,  Mr.  Smith  retired ;  and  in  1845  Mr.  Johnson 
associated  with  him  Thomas  MacKellar,  John  F.  Smith,  and  Richard  Smith,  who 
had,  as  it  were,  grown  up  with  the  business.  The  foundry  now  quickly  grew  in 
importance,  and  won  a  mde  reputation.  A  quarterly  periodical,  entitled  the 
Typographic  Advertiser,  edited  by  a  then  junior  of  the  firm,  was  (and  still  is) 
issued  and  circulated  at  home  and  in  foreign  lands;  while  its  finely-printed 
Specimen  Books  showed  that  the  foundry  was  making  rapid  progress,  Mr.  John- 
son died  in  1860,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  three  junior  partners,  who,  with  Peter 
A.  Jordan,  constitute  the  present  firm,  now  known  as  MacKellar,  Smiths  & 
Jordan,  under  whose  management  the  establishment  has  been  brought  to  rank 
at  least  equal  with  the  first  in  the  world.  Their  new  Specimen  Book  may  be 
regarded  as  a  unique  mechanical  and  literary  production. 


18  TYPE-FOUNDING  IN  AMERICA. 

mould,  by  which  a  caster  could  cast  6000  letters  in  a  day  with 
as  much  ease  as  he  before  could  cast  4000. 

According  to  Holmes's  American  Annals,  about  200  news- 
papers were  printed  in  the  United  States  in  the  year  1801,  of 
which  17  were  issued  daily,  7  three  times  a  week,  30  twice  a 
week,  and  146  weekly.  "  There  must  also  have  been  at  the 
same  time  as  many  as  60  offices  engaged  in  miscellaneous 
printing.  The  whole  business  had  increased  threefold  in 
eleven  years.  Another  type-foundry  was  put  in  successful 
operation  in  Baltimore,  about  1805,  by  Samuel  Sower  &  Co. 
It  had  in  it  some  moulds  and  matrices  which  had  been  used 
by  Christopher  Sower,  who  had  printed  in  Germantown,  near 
Philadelphia,  and  cast  his  own  types.  He  printed  with  Ger- 
man characters ;  but  now  the  foundry  was  revived  with  ex- 
cellent Roman  and  Italic  letters,  and  among  other  extraordi- 
nary things  it  had  the  size  called  Diamond,  with  a  smaller 
face  than  had  ever  been  cast  before.  It  was  the  smallest 
type  in  the  world. 

The  demand  for  type  was  very  brisk  till  the  war  of  1812 
commenced,  and  the  foundries  were  generally  three  or  four 
months  in  arrears  in  their  execution  of  orders.  The  names 
of  the  newspapers  published  in  the  United  States  in  April, 
1810,  are  given  in  Thomas's  History  of  Printing,  and  amount 
to  359,  of  which  27  were  daily  papers,  38  were  printed  twice, 
15  three  times,  and  279  once  in  a  week.  Add  those  required 
for  general  printing,  and  the  whole  number  of  offices  could 
not  be  less  than  500, — being  an  increase  of  240  in  nine  j^ears, 
and  some  of  them  using  several  thousand  pounds  of  type  for 
book-printing. 

In  1811,  Elihu  White  established  a  type-foundry  in  New 
York.  He  had  been  long  engaged,  in  connection  with  Mr. 
Wing,  in  the  manufacture  of  printing-types,  at  Hartford,  Con- 
necticut, upon  a  plan  of  their  own  invention,  by  which  20  or 
30  letters  were  cast  at  once ;  but,  abandoning  that  invention,  he 
adopted  the  old  plan  of  casting,  and,  having  a  good  assort- 
ment of  faces  and  bodies,  his  removal  to  New  York  was  a 
great  convenience  to  its  printers,  and  they  gave  him  a  very 
satisfactory  support.  But  the  principal  business  in  type- 
founding  still  continued  for  some  years  to  be  done  in  Phila- 
delphia. 

In  1813,  another  type-foundry  was  begun  in  the  city  of  New 


TYPE-FOUNDING  IN  AMERICA,  19 

York,  by  D.  &  G.  Bruce,  principally  to  cast  types  for  their 
own  use.  They  had  carried  on  book-printing  for  seven  years, 
and  had  now  become  acquainted  with  the  stereotype  art, — Mr. 
David  Bruce  having  visited  England  in  1812  and  acquired  it 
by  purchase  and  actual  labour.  For  ordinary  printing,  it  was 
customary  to  bevel  off  the  body  of  the  type  at  the  face  end,  or 
shoulder,  as  it  is  usually  called,  which  unfitted  it  for  making 
a  strong  stereotype  plate  in  the  most  approved  way;  hence 
the  necessity  for  casting  type  expressly  for  stereotype.  Their 
first  fount  was  Bourgeois,  with  which  they  cast  two  sets  of 
plates  of  the  New  Testament  (the  Common  School  Testament), 
and  sold  one  of  these  to  Mathew  Carey,  of  Philadelphia,  re- 
taining the  other  for  their  own  business.  But  these  were  not 
completed  till  1814.  In  1815,  they  cast  the  plates  of  the  12mo 
School  Bible,  on  Nonpareil  type,  prepared,  like-the  Bourgeois, 
at  their  own  foundry  expressly  for  stereotyping.  They  thus 
gave  the  first  stereotype  School  Testament  and  School  Bible 
to  America;  but  not  the  first  stereotype  book.  John  Watts, 
of  England,  also  commenced  stereotyping  in  New  York  in 
1813,  and  completed  the  Westminster  Catechism  that  year,  a 
volume  of  120  pages  12mo.  David  Bruce  invented  the  planing- 
machine  for  equalizing  the  thickness  of  stereotype  plates, 
which  is  now  used  in  every  stereotype  foundry  in  the  United 
States.  The  process  of  stereotyping  is,  however,  entirely  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  ordinary  type-founding,  and  it  is,  therefore, 
generally  carried  on  as  a  separate  business,  or  connected  with 
the  composing  department  of  a  printing-office.  Twenty  com- 
positors and  two  proof-readers  will  furnish  full  employment 
for  one  moulder,  one  caster,  and  three  finishers,  who  will, 
among  them,  complete,  on  an  average,  50  pages  of  octavo 
per  day. 

In  1818,  or  soon  after,  a  type  and  stereotype  foundry  was 
established  in  Boston,  and  another  in  Cincinnati,  principally 
through  the  enterprise  of  the  late  Elihu  White,  who,  having 
the  means  of  multiplying  matrices  with  facility,  took  this 
method  for  the  extension  of  his  business.  Others  followed 
his  example,  and  type-foundries  were  established  in  Albany, 
Buffalo,  Pittsburgh,  Louisville,  and  St.  Louis,  with  several 
additional  in  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore. 
The  business,  in  fact,  was  overdone,  and  failures  and  sup- 
pressions took  place,  as  competition  reduced  the  prices  of 
types. 


20  TYPE-FOUNDING  IN  AMERICA, 

The  mode  of  type-founding  has  latterly  undergone  some  im- 
portant changes,  which  must  no  doubt  be  considered  improve- 
ments. First  among  them  is  the  introduction  of  machine- 
casting,  in  which  a  pump  forces  the  fluid  metal  into  the  mould 
and  matrix,  and  gives  a  sharper  outline  to  the  letter  than  was 
formerly  given  by  the  most  violent  throw  of  the  caster.  The 
old  practice  of  casting  only  a  single  type  at  a  time  remains. 
The  first  idea  of  this  machine  originated  with  William  M. 
Johnson,  who  obtained  a  patent  for  it  in  1828.  Elihu  White 
put  it  into  use  in  his  type-foundry,  and  persevered  in  using 
and  trying  to  improve  it  as  long  as  he  lived ;  but  he  did  not 
succeed  in  removing  the  greatest  fault,  which  was  a  hoUow- 
ness  in  the  body  of  the  type  cast  by  it,  that  inclined  them  to 
sink  under  the  pressure  of  the  printing-press.  The  first  suc- 
cessful type-casting  machine  was  invented  by  David  Bruce,  Jr., 
of  New  York,  and  was  patented  March  17,  1838.  The  patent 
was  sold  to  George  Bruce,  and  the  machines  were  used  by 
him  until  1845.  David  Bruce  meanwhile  patented  another 
machine  in  1843,  which,  with  new  improvements,  patented  two 
years  later,  gave  entire  satisfaction,  and  is  now  in  general  use 
in  American  foundries.  By  Bruce' s  machine,  three  times 
the  quantity  of  type  that  was  cast  by  Binny  &  Ronaldson's 
improved  mould  is  now  cast  in  a  given  time,  and  nearly  five 
times  the  quantity  that  was  cast  by  the  common  hand-mould 
fifty  years  ago.  This  improvement  has  passed  into  Europe, 
and  been  adopted  by  most  of  the  German  type-founders ;  but 
in  Britain  for  some  time  it  found  little  favour ;  and  some  kinds 
of  types  are  still  cast  there  in  the  same  kind  of  mould  as  was 
used  two  hundred  years  ago,  or  in  the  earliest-known  type- 
founding,  at  the  rate  of  4000  letters  in  a  day. 

The  next  innovation  to  be  mentioned  is  the  application  of 
electrotyping  in  making  copies  of  new  styles  got  up  by  rival 
or  foreign  founders.  In  regular  type-founding,  the  original 
of  each  character  is  formed  on  a  separate  steel  punch,  which, 
being  hardened  and  tempered,  is  driven  into  copper  a  six- 
teenth of  an  inch  or  more,  to  form  the  face  of  the  tj^pe,  called 
a  matrix.  The  matrices  thus  made  are  more  durable  than 
those  produced  by  galvanism ;  the  latter  being  formed  by  pre- 
cipitating copper  on  the  face  of  a  type  in  a  galvanic  battery. 

There  are  now  three  type-foundries  in  Boston,  eight  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  one  in  Buffalo,  three  in  Philadelphia,  one 
in  Baltimore,  two  in  Cincinnati,  one  in  Chicago,  one  in  Mil- 
waukee, and  one  in  St.  Louis, — in   all,  twenty-one.     These 


STEREOTYPING,  21 

foundries  not  only  supply  the  printers  of  the  United  States, 
but  most  of  the  printers  in  Canada,  some  in  the  British  West 
India  Islands,  the  Spanish  and  Danish  Islands,  Mexico,  and 
South  America.  The  quality  of  American  types  is  equal— if 
not  superior — to  that  of  any  made  in  Europe.  The  following 
are  the  prices  at  which  they  have  been  sold  for  the  last  sixty- 
six  years,  given  at  nine  different  dates,  and  naming  only  the 
principal  and  most  useful  sizes. 

1801.    1806.    1811.    1819.  1827.  1831.  18U1.  1850.  1866. 

Pica I0.35  $0.44  $0.55  $0.44  $0.42  $0.36  $0.38  $0.30  $0.56 

Small  Pica 40   .48   .58   .48  .46  .38  .40  .32  .58 

Long  Primer 47        .56        .66        .56  .50  .40  .42  .34  .62 

Bourgeois 56        .66        .76        .66  .58  .46  .46  .37  .66 

Brevier 67        .76        .86        .76  .70  .56  .54  .42  .70 

Minion 1.03       1.13       i.oo  .88  .70  .66  .48  .76 

Nonpareil 1.12      1.40      1.75      1.40  1.20  .90  .84  .58  .84 

Agate 1.44  1. 10  1.08  .72  1.00 

Pearl 1.75  1.40  1.40  1.08  1.40 

Diamond 1.60  1.80 

STEREOTYPING, 

Stereotyping  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  J.  Van  der 
Mey,  in  Holland,  about  1698.  A  quarto  Bible  and  some  other 
books  were  printed  by  him  from  plates,  which  were  formed 
by  soldering  the  bottoms  of  common  type  together.  William 
Ged,  of  Edinburgh,  discovered  the  present  mode,  and  stereo- 
typed the  Bible  and  Book  of  Common  Prayer  in  1725.  He 
encountered  malicious  opposition,  and  the  business  was  aban- 
doned, the  new  method  dying  with  the  inventor.  About  1745, 
Benjamin  Mecom,  a  nephew  of  Dr.  Franklin,  cast  plates  for  a 
number  of  the  pages  of  the  New  Testament.  Dr.  Alexander 
Tilloch,  of  Glasgow,  re-discovered  the  art  in  1781.  Stereo- 
typing gradually  spread,  and  became  a  potent  means  in  the 
reduction  of  the  cost  of  books.  At  present,  almost  every  im- 
portant work  is  stereotyped  or  electrotyped. 

Several  methods  of  stereotyping  are  now  practised.  Many 
of  the  leading  newspapers  of  England  and  America  are 
printed  from  stereotype  plates  cast  in  moulds  made  of  pre- 
pared paper :  this  mode  is,  however,  very  inferior,  and  is  not 
applicable  to  fine  books. 

Matter  for  stereotyping  is  set  with  high  spaces  and  quad- 
rates.   The  forms  must  be  small,  containing  about  two  pages 


22  STEREOTYPING, 

of  common  octavo.  A  slug  type-high  is  put  above  the  top  line 
and  another  below  the  foot  line  of  each  page,  to  protect  the 
ends  of  the  plates  from  injury  when  they  are  passed  through 
the  shaving-machine.  Bevelled  slugs,  in  height  equal  to  the 
shoulder  of  the  type,  are  placed  on  both  sides  and  between  the 
pages,  to  form  the  flange  by  which  the  plate  is  to  be  clasped 
by  the  hooks  of  the  printing-block. 

Before  the  form  is  sent  into  the  foundry,  the  type  must  be 
carefully  compared  with  the  proof,  to  detect  any  errors  which 
may  have  been  left  uncorrected.  Care  must  be  taken  to  lock 
up  the  form  perfectly  square  and  quite  tight,  to  prevent  the 
types  from  being  pulled  out  when  the  mould  is  raised  from 
the  pages.  It  must  be  evenly  planed  down,  and  no  ink  or  dirt 
or  incrustations  from  the  ley  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the 
surface. 

The  face  of  the  type  being  clean  and  dry,  and  the  bottoms 
free  from  particles  of  dirt,  the  form  is  laid  on  a  clean  mould- 
ing-stone, and  brushed  over  with  sweet-oil,  which  must  be 
laid  on  as  thinly  as  possible,  care  being  taken  that  the  entire 
surface  of  the  types  is  covered.  A  moulding-frame,  with  a 
screw  at  each  corner  (called  a  flask)  ^  and  fitting  neatly  to  the 
form,  is  next  placed  around  it. 

The  material  for  moulding  is  finely  ground  gypsum,  nine 
parts  of  which  are  mixed  with  about  seven  parts  of  water,  and 
well  stirred  up.  A  small  quantity  of  the  liquid  mixture  is 
poured  over  the  pages,  and  gently  pressed  into  the  counter  of 
the  types  with  a  small  roller,  for  the  purpose  of  expelling  con- 
fined air ;  after  which,  the  remainder  of  the  gypsum  is  poured 
in,  until  the  mould  is  somewhat  higher  than  the  upper  edge  of 
the  flask.  In  a  few  minutes  the  mixture  sets,  and  the  upper 
side  is  smoothed  over  with  a  steel  straight-edge.  In  about  ten 
minutes  the  mould  is  gently  raised  by  means  of  the  screws  at 
the  corners  of  the  flask ;  and,  after  being  nicely  trimmed  at 
the  sides,  and  nicked  on  the  surface-edges  to  make  openings 
for  the  metal  to  run  in,  it  is  placed  on  a  shelf  in  an  oven,  and 
allowed  to  remain  until  the  moisture  has  quite  evaporated. 

The  casting-pans  may  be  large  enough  to  hold  three  or  four 
moulds.  The  dried  moulds  are  placed  in  a  pan  face  down- 
ward, upon  a  moveable  iron  plate  called  a  floater.  The 
cover  of  the  casting-pan,  which  has  a  hole  at  each  corner  for 
the  passage  of  the  metal,  is  then  clamped  to  it,  and  lifted  by  a 
movable  crane  and  gently  lowered  into  the  metal-pot, — con- 


STEREOTYPING.  23 

taining,  it  may  be,  a  thousand  pounds  of  liquid  metal, — till  the 
metal  begins  to  flow  slowly  in  at  the  corners.  When  the  pan 
is  filled,  it  is  sunk  to  the  bottom  of  the  pot.  The  metal  should 
be  hot  enough  to  light  a  piece  of  brown  paper  held  in  it. 
After  being  immersed  eight  or  ten  minutes,  the  pan  is  steadily 
drawn  out  by  means  of  the  crane,  and  swung  over  to  the  cool- 
ing-trough, into  which  it  is  lowered  and  rested  upon  a  stone 
so  as  just  to  touch  the  water,  in  order  that  the  metal  at  the 
bottom  of  the  pot  maj^  cool  first.  The  metal  contracts  while 
cooling,  and  the  caster  occasionally  pours  in  a  small  quantity 
at  the  corners  from  a  l^dle,  till  it  will  take  no  more. 

The  plates  are  carefully  removed  from  the  solid  mass  which 
comes  out  of  the  pan,  and  the  plaster  is  washed  from  the  sur- 
face. If,  after  examination,  the  face  is  good  and  sharply  set, 
the  plates  are  passed  over  to  a  picker,  who  removes  any  slight 
defects  arising  from  an  imperfection  of  the  mould.  They 
are  then  trimmed  and  passed  through  the  shaving-machine, 
till  all  are  brought  to  an  equal  thickness.  The  flanges  are 
neatly  side-planed,  and  the  plates  are  then  boxed,  ready  for 
the  printing-press. 

In  England,  the  plates  are  merely  turned  on  the  back, 
and,  consequently,  vary  in  thickness.  This  must  be  a  source 
of  continual  expense  and  annoyance  to  the  pressman.  The 
flanges,  besides,  are  very  imperfectly  made, — so  imperfectly 
that  they  cannot  be  used  on  American  printing-blocks ;  and 
English  plates,  when  imported  into  tliis  country,  are,  there- 
fore, sent  to  a  foundry  here,  to  be  brought  to  an  equal  thick- 
ness and  to  be  properly  side-planed.  The  American  shaving- 
machine  and  printing-block  are  scarcely  known  abroad,  though 
far  superior  to  foreign  arrangements. 

In  1804,  before  the  introduction  of  stereotyping  into  this 
country,  Mathew  Carey,  the  well-known  enterprising  pub- 
lisher in  Philadelphia,  had  the  Bible  in  quarto  set  up  entire, 
and  regularly  imposed  in  chases,  to  print  from  at  convenience, 
according  to  the  demand  for  the  volume.  The  type  was  cast 
by  Binny  &  Ronaldson.  Stereotyping  would  have  saved  a 
vast  proportion  of  the  immense  outlay  required  to  carry  out 
the  scheme,  which,  nevertheless,  even  under  these  circum- 
stances, was  doubtless  highly  remunerative.  The  weight  of 
type  must  have  amounted  to  25,000  pounds,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  number  of  chases  and  column-rules  required. 


24  ELECTROTYPING— LITHOGRAPHY, 


ELECTROTYPING. 

Lately,  stereotyping  has  measurably  given  way  to  the  appli- 
cation of  galvanism  named  Electrotyping,  and  may  be  super- 
seded by  it,  though  the  former  is  better  for  moderate  editions. 

The  pages  being  made  ready  and  laid  in  a  press,  a  pan  of 
prepared  wax,  warmed,  is  placed  over  the  pages  and  pressed 
down  to  the  counter  of  the  types.  The  mould  is  carefully 
dusted  with  plumbago,  to  give  it  a  metallic  surface,  and  is 
then  suspended  in  the  battery.  On  this,  in  a  few  hours,  is 
deposited  a  thin  shell  of  copper,  which,  after  being  coated 
with  tin  solder,  is  backed  up  with  metal  to  the  usual  thick- 
ness of  a  stereotype  plate.  This  method  of  electro-stereotyping 
is  desirable  for  Bibles  and  other  works  of  which  immense  edi- 
tions are  required.  Wood-cuts  are  usually  electrotyped,  as  a 
stereotype  mould  cannot  be  drawn  unless  the  wood-cut  has 
been  previously  coated  with  gum,  which  thickens  the  lines 
and  injures  the  effect  of  the  engraving. 

The  same  care  in  preparing  the  pages  for  electrotyping  must 
be  observed  as  for  stereotyping.  For  stereotyping,  high  slugs 
are  placed  only  at  the  top  and  foot  of  the  page ;  but,  for  electro- 
typing, they  must  be  set  around  on  all  sides,  and  the  bevelled 
flange  must  be  made  by  side-planing. 

LITHOGRAPHY. 

Lithography  is  the  art  of  printing,  by  a  chemical  process, 
from  designs  made  with  a  greasy  material  upon  stone.  It  was 
discovered  about  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  by  Alois 
Senefelder,  an  actor  of  Munich,  Bavaria,  whose  patience  and 
perseverance  under  the  most  disadvantageous  circumstances 
were  truly  remarkable  and  praiseworthy.  Differing  from  all 
other  methods  of  printing,  the  impressions  are  obtained  (by 
strict  attention  to  chemical  affinity)  from  a  level  surface. 

The  stone  best  calculated  for  lithographic  purposes  is  a  sort 
of  calcareous  slate  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  in  Ba- 
varia, the  finest  being  found  near  Munich.  A  good  stone  is 
porous,  yet  brittle,  of  a  pale  yellowish  drab,  and  sometimes  of 
a  gray  neutral  tint.  The  stones  are  formed  into  sl&bs  from 
one  and  a-half  to  three  inches  in  thickness.  To  prepare  them 
for  use,  two  stones  are  placed  face  to  face  with  some  fine  sifted 


LITHOGRAPHY.  25 

sand  between  them,  and  then  are  rubbed  together  with  a  cir- 
cular motion,  to  jproduce  the  requisite.- granulation,  which  is 
made  finer  or  coarser  to  suit  the  purpose  of  the  artist. 

The  principal  agents  used  for  making  designs  on  stone  are 
called  lithographic  chalk  and  lithographic  ink.  They  are 
composed  of  tallow,  virgin  wax,  hard  tallow  soajD,  shellac, 
sometimes  a  little  mastic  or  copal,  and  enough  lampblack  to 
impart  a  colour  to  the  mass.  These  ingredients  are  put  into 
an  iron  sauce-pan,  and  exposed  to  a  strong  fire  till  the  mass  is 
in  a  state  of  ignition.  When  the  quantity  is  reduced  one-half, 
the  pan  is  carefully  covered,  or  put  into  water  to  extinguish 
the  flame  and  cool  the  mixture.  After  being  well  worked  up, 
it  is  formed  into  small  cakes  or  sticks.  The  ingredients  ar6 
the  same  in  the  chalk  and  the  ink,  but  the  x^i'oportions  are 
varied,  and  a  little  Venice  turpentine  is  often  added  to  the 
latter.  The  chalk  is  used  in  a  dry  state ;  but  the  ink  is  dis- 
solved by  rubbing  in  water,  and  is  used  in  a  pen  or  with  a 
camel-hair  pencil.  The  jiresence  of  soap  renders  it  soluble  in 
water. 

The  artist  completes  a  drawing  with  the  chalk  upon  a 
grained  stone  as  he  would  make  a  drawing  in  i)encil  or  chalk 
upon  paper.  If  while  in  this  state  a  wet  sponge  were  passed 
over  the  face  of  the  stone,  the  drawing  would  wash  off.  To 
prevent  this,  and  to  make  it  capable  of  yielding  impressions, 
a  weak  solution  of  nitrous  acid  is  poured  over  it,  which  unites 
with  and  neutralizes  the  alkali  or  soaj)  contained  in  the  chalk, 
and  renders  it  insoluble  in  water.  After  this,  the  usual  course 
is  to  float  a  solution  of  gum  over  the  whole  face  of  the  stone ; 
and,  when  this  is  taken  off,  the  drawing  is  no  longer  removable 
by  the  application  of  a  wet  sponge,  because  the  chalk  is  now 
insoluble.  The  stone  is  now  ready  for  the  printer,  who  ob- 
tains impressions  by  the  following  process. 

Having  damped  the  surface  of  the  stone  equally  with  a 
sponge  filled  with  water  which  has  been  slightly  tinctured 
by  acid,  the  printer  finds  that  the  water  has  been  imbibed  by 
only  those  parts  of  the  stone  which  are  not  occupied  by  the 
drawing,  which,  being  greasy,  repels  the  water  and  remains 
dry.  A  roller  covered  with  ink  is  now  passed  over  the  stone, 
which  will  not  even  be  soiled  where  it  is  wet,  from  the  anti^ 
pathy  of  oil  and  water.  But  the  parts  occupied  by  the  draw- 
ing, being  dry  and  greasy,  have  an  affinity  for  the  printing- 
ink,  which,  therefore,  leaves  the  roller  and  attaches  itself  to 

3 


26  -       LITHOGRAPHY, 

the  drawing.  In  this  state  it  is  said  to  be  charged  or  rolled  in. 
A  sheet  of  damped  paper  is  then  put  over  it,  and,  the  whole 
being  passed  through  .a  press,  the  printing-ink  is  transferred 
from  the  stone  to  the  paper,  and  the  impression  is  obtained. 
Great  nicety  is  requisite  in  the  preparation  of  all  the  agents 
employed  in  this  art,  and  in  the  process  of  printing  as  well  as 
in  making  the  drawing  on  the  stone. 

The  most  important  application  of  this  process  is  in  the 
production  of  copies  of  coloured  drawings  and  paintings, — 
a  process  known  as  chromo-lithography.  The  object  here 
being  to  produce  as  nearly  as  possible  fac-similes  in  colour, 
touch,  and  texture,  as  well  as  in  drawing  and  light  and  sha- 
dow, of  pictures  from  the  pencils  of  painters  of  the  highest 
standing,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  employ  a  large  num- 
ber of  stones,  in  order  to  produce  the  almost  infinite  varieties 
of  tints  which  are  found  united  in  a  single  picture, — eyery 
stone  giving  a  separate  impression  in  its  own  particular  colour 
or  tint.  The  mode  of  procedure  is  somewhat  as  follows. 
First,  an  outline  of  the  entire  subject  is  made  by  means  of 
transfer  paper,  or  otherwise,  on  a.  stone  which  is  called  the 
outline  or  keystone  of  the  work.  This  stone  yields  impressions 
which  are  transferred  as  guides  to  all  the  other  stones.  On  a 
second  and  third  stone  which  serve  as  the  basis  of  the  print 
the  general  effect  of  the  drawing  is  washed  in,  and  from  these 
are  printed  what  may  be  called  the  chiaroscuro,  in  a  faint  tint 
of  sepia  and  of  a  neutral  colour  or  gray, — corresponding,  iri 
fact,*  very  nearly  to  the  neutral  or  dead  colouring  of  a  water- 
colour  drawing  in  the  method  adopted  by  the  early  water- 
colour  painters.  The  stones  which  follow  are  each  charged 
with  a  particular  colour  or  tint,  and  each  leaves  its  impression 
on  only  a  particular  portion  of  the  print, — one  stone  printing 
only  the  parts  which  are  intended  to  be  yellow  or  a  modifica- 
tion of  yellow,  another  red,  another  blue,  and  so  on.  Other 
stones  charged  in  parts  with  grays  or  secondary  colours  serve 
to  blend  and  harmonize  the  crude  colours ;  others  follow  which 
modify  these ;  and,  finally,  one  gives  the  sharp  dark  touches, 
and  is  usually  followed  by  another  which  supplies  a  sort  of 
glaze  or  finishing  wash,  and  subdues  and  harmonizes  the 
whole.  Of  course,  we  have  merely  indicated  the  general 
method.  It  will  be  understood  that  the  sequence  of  the  colours 
in  the  printing,  the  special  quality  and  strength  to  be  given  to 
each  particular  tint,  the  effect  to  be  produced  by  their  super- 


ENGRAVING,  27 

position,  and  many  other  particulars,  have  all  to  be  taken  into 
account  in  planning  the  arrangement  of  the  colours  on  the 
stones; — since  a  sequence  in  some  respects  different,  and  an 
entirely  different  modification  of  colours,  have  to  be  employed 
for  the  works  of  most  artists ;  and  it  happens  that  much  of  the 
colour  on  each  of  the  earlier  stones  is  covered  by  that  of  suc- 
ceeding stones,  and  that  thus  only  can  the  broken  tints  of  the 
original  be  imitated.  It  is,  in  fact,  only  by  watching  the  pro- 
gress of  a  print  through  all  its  stages  that  any  clear  idea  can 
be  obtained  of  the  beauty  and  accuracy  of  the  whole  process, 
of  the  prevision  that  must  be  exercised,  and  of  the  skill,  care, 
and  taste  required  at  every  step  to  carry  it  to  a  successful  ter- 
mination. For  some  of  the  more  elaborate  prints,  from  thirty 
to  forty  stones  have  been  required  to  produce  a  finished  print. 
And  in  order  to  produce  this  print,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  each  sheet  of  paper  has  to  be  passed  as  many  times  through 
the  press  as  there  are  stones,  since  each  stone  imprints  upon  it 
only  its  own  particular  section  of  the  Avork.  Of  course,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  increase  in  the  number  of  the  stones,  does  the 
difficulty  increase  of  making  the  work  upon  each  fall  exactly 
upon  its  proper  place  in  the  general  design ;  for,  if  any  one 
were  misplaced  only  the  fiftieth  of  an  inch,  the  drawing  and 
colour  of  the  whole  would  be  distui'bed.  Hence  it  is  found 
necessary  to  arrange  the  regintcr^  or  adjustment  of  the  stones, 
with  the  utmost  care  and  precision,  and  to  exercise  the  most 
careful  supervision  in  the  printing  (which  is  entirely  a  hand 
process),  since  the  sheet  of  paper  expands  considerably  in 
passing  through  the  press,  and  has  to  be  dried  and  re-damped 
before  it  can  be  passed  through  again.  But  practically  this  is 
all  accomplished  with  seeming  ease,  and  a  largo  and  most 
complex  subject  will  be  found,  when  the  last  stage  has  been 
reached,  to  bear  the  most  minute  scrutiny;  and  the  result, 
even  when  the  copy  is  placed  alongside  the  original,  will  sur- 
prise and  delight  equally  those  who  have  followed  the  work 
through  its  several  steps,  and  those  who  may  only  examine 
the  comx)leted  work. 

ENGRAVING, 

The  origin  of  engraving  on  wood,  like  that  of  many  other 
useful  arts,  is  obscured  by  clouds  which  the  learned  have  in 
vain  endeavoured  to  dispel.    The  most  probable  opinion  is 


28  ^   WALK  OVER  OUR  FOUNDRY, 

that  it  is  of  Asiatic  origin.  China  seems  to  have  the  best 
claim  to  the  invention.  Tlie  earliest  specimen  of  engraving 
on  wood  in  Europe  is  supposed  to  have  been  executed  about 
the  year  1284. 

According  to  Vasari,  the  important  discovery  of  chalco- 
graphy was  made  by  Thomas  Finiguerra,  a  Florentine  gold- 
smith of  the  fifteenth  century,  whp  lived  from  1400  to  1460. 
The  manner  in  which  he  made  this  discovery  is  thus  stated 
by  the  Rev.  T.  F.  Dibdin  :— 

"  Of  engraving  upon  copper,  the  earliest  known  impression 
is  that  executed  by  one  Tommaso  Finiguerra,  a  goldsmith  of 
Florence,  with  the  date  of  1460  upon  it.  One  of  the  following 
circumstances  is  supjjosed  to  have  given  rise  to  the  discovery. 
Finiguerra  chanced  to  cast,  or  let  fall,  a  piece  of  copper,  en- 
graved and  filled  with  ink,  into  melted  sulphur;  and,  ob- 
serving that  the  exact  impression  of  his  work  was  left  on  the 
sulphur,  he  repeated  the  experiment  on  moistened  paper, 
rolling  it  gently  with  a  roller.  This  origin  has  been  admitted 
by  Lord  Walpole  and  Mr.  Landseer;  but  another  has  been 
also  mentioned  by  Huber.  '  It  is  reported,'  says  he,  *  that  a 
washerwoman  left  some  linen  upon  a  plate  or  dish  on  which 
Finiguerra  had  just  been  engraving,  and  that  an  impression 
of  the  subject  engraved,  however  imperfect,  came  off  upon  the 
linen,  occasioned  by  its  weight  and  moistness.'  " 


As  a  fitting  conclusion  to  this  part,  we  copy  an  article,  ori- 
ginally  published  in  L.  Johnson  &  Co.'s  Typographic  Adver- 
tiser, entitled 

A   WALK  OVER  OUR  FOUNDRY, 

Mr.  Typograpii,  how  are  you,  sir?  Glad  to  see  you.  How 
is  business  with  you?  Plenty  to  do,  and  customers  paying 
up  ?  You  are  so  prompt  in  paying  us,  that  we  have  no  doubt 
you  have  a  noble  set  of  customers.  You  wish  to  add  to  your 
stock  our  new  things  ?  All  right,  sir.  You  have  a  fine  office 
already,  but  you  want  to  keep  up  with  the  times,  and  give 
your  patrons  the  best  the  type-founder  can  invent?  That's 
the  way,  sir.   The  man  on  the  lookout  sees  the  sun  the  earliest. 


A   WALK  OVER  OUR  FOUNDRY. 


29 


Mr.  Faithful,  show  our  new  things  to  Mr.  Typograph,  and  take 
his  order. 

You  say,  Mr.  Typograph,  that  you  have  never  gone  over  a 
type-foundry?  We  shall  be  happy  to  show  you  every  thing. 
This  way,  sir.    Here  is  the  metal-house.    These  piles  of  dull 


lead,  these  casks  of  sparkling  antimony,  this  coppoi",  and  this 
tin,  go  to  form  the  grand  amalgam  of  which  type  is  made. 
The  worthy  and  kind-hearted  man  who  is  stirring  at  the 
kettle,  unites,  in  bonds  stronger  than  matrimony,  some  ten  to 
twelve  thousand  pounrls  of  those  metals  every  week.     Tt  may 


30 


A   WALK  OVER  OUR  FOUNDRY. 


appear  to  you,  Mr.  Typograj)!!,  to  be  a  simple  thing  to  throw 
into  the  kettle  certain  amounts  of  lead  and  antimony,  and 
copper  and  tin,  and  produce  type-metal.  Not  so,  good  friend. 
It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  compose  a  metal  that  shall  be  hard, 
yet  not  brittle ;  ductile,  yet  tough ;  flowing  freely,  yet  harden- 
ing quickly.  All  these  conditions  must  be — and  are — met. 
Break  a  bar  in  two,  and  examine  the  grain  of  our  metal :  is  it 
not  beautiful  ? 

Now,  sir,  let  us  up-stairs  and  see  how  these  bars  are  fitted 
for  printer's  use.  This  is  a  punch-cutter — a  man  of  exquisite 
finger  and  unerring  eye — sitting  amid  keen  and  deli- 
cate tools  and  accurate  gauges.  On  the  end  of  a  piece 
of  steel,  he  is  forming  a  letter.  ^  touch  here  and  a 
touch  there,  and  frequent  testing  by  gauges, — so  he 
proceeds,  till  the  letter  is  done;  then  another,  and 
another,  till  the  alphabet  is  complete;  all  the  letters 
harmonizing  entirely  in  height,  breadth,  aj^pearance, 
length  of  stroke,  &c.  A  smoke-proof  of  the  dies  is 
taken,  and  if  apj)roved  the  dies  are  one  by  one  placed 
in  a  stamping  machine,  so, — and  an  oblong  piece  of 
copper  is  set  under  it,   so, — and   then    this  lever    is 

PUNCH 

brought  down,  so, — and  a  i)erfect  impression  of  the  die 
is  left,  as  you  see,  deep  in  the  copper.  This  is  the  matrix. 
The  matrices  are  passed  over  to  other  workmen  in  the  adjoin- 
ing room.  Observe  now  the  carefulness  and  skill 
exercised  in  fitting  up  these  bits  of  copper,  so  that, 
when  placed  in  the  mould,  the  types  cast  in  them 
liiiUHIIilH  ^^^^^"^  range  accurately  and  be  of  uniform  height. 
The  slightest  variation  would  give  the  zigzag  appear- 
ance which  you  may  have  noticed  in  badly-made 
type.  This  we  endeavour  sedulously  to  avoid,  and 
with  how  much  success  you  can  judge  from  our 
Specimen  Book.  Look  at  this  drawer  full  of  matrices. 
You  say  tlley  are  triumphs  of  art?  True  saying, 
evincive  of  good  judgment. 

You  wonder  what  these  curious-looking  instru- 
ments are  which  lie,  in  dusty  repose,  on  the  shelves 
...-rn.v,      around  the  room?    Those,  Mr.  Typo^raph,  are  hand- 
moulds,  and   at   one   time    they  provoked    intense 
covetousness  on  the  part  of  rival  founders.    One  of  our  earliest 
predecessors,  Mr.  Archibald  Binny  (our  foundry  dates  from 
1796),   added   such  valuable  improvements  to  the  ordinary 


A   WALK  OVER  OUR  FOUNDRY. 


31 


mould,  that  no  other  foundry  in  the  world  could  rival  the 
expedition  and  accuracy  with  which  types  were  cast  in  the 
establishment  of  which  he  was  a  co-proprietor.  Their  day 
has  passed,  however.  They  have  been  superseded  by  the 
machines  which  you  will  see  in  operation  in  another  apart- 
ment. But  they  were  capital  things  in  their  time,  sir,  and  we 
regard  them  Avith  somewhat  of  an  antiquary's  reverence. 
Now  we  enter  the  casting-rooms.    These  tiny  machines, 


CASTING    MACHINE. 


32  A   WALK  OVER  OUR  FOUNDRY. 

small  as  they  are,  can  throw  out  more  type  in  one  day  than 
ypu  would  be  likely  to  count  in  a  month,  even  if  you  could 
call  off  one  hundred  a  minute,  and  occupy  ten  hours  a  day. 
Snug  little  fellows,  are  they  not?  They  were  invented  by  a 
IS'ew- Yorker,  Mr.  David  Bruce,  Jr.  A  very  ingenious  man, 
you  say?  That  is  true.  Look  at  one  carefully.  The  metal 
is  kept  fluid  by  a  little  furnace  underneath,  and  is  j^rojected 
into  the  mould  by  a  pump,  the  spout  of  which,  you  see,  is  in 
front  of  the  metal-pot.  The  mould  is  movable,  and  at  every 
revolution  of  the  crank  in  the  hand  of  the  workman  it  comes 
up  to  the  spout,  receives  a  charge  of  metal,  and  flies  back 
with  a  fully-formed  type  in  its  bosom ;  the  upper  half  of 
the  mould  lifts,  and  out  jumps  a  type  as  lively  as  a  tadpole. 
You  don't  see  how  the  letter  is  formed  on  the  end  of  the  type? 
True,  we  had  forgotten:  well,  this  spring  in  front  holds  in 
loving  proximity  to  the  mould  a  coj)per  matrix,  such  as  you 
saw  just  now  in  the  fitting-room.  The  letter  a,  for  instance, 
stamped  in  the  matrix,  sits  directlj^  opposite  the  aperture  in 
the  mould  which  meets  the  spout  of  the  pump ;  and  when  a 
due  proportion  of  a's  is  cast,  another  matrix  with  b  stamped 
in  it  takes  its  place;  and  so  on  throughout  the  alphabet. 
Slow  work,  you  say,  one  at  a  time?  Well,  the  world  is  peopled 
after  that  fashion;  and  it  fills  up  fast  enough.  But  just  time 
this  machine :  it  is  making  small,  thin  type.  Count  the  type 
made  in  a  minute.  One  hundred  and  seventy-five,  you  say. 
One  hundred  per  minute  will  probably  be  the  average  of  the 
ordinary  sizes  of  printing  type. 

The  types  are  not  finished  yet?  Oh,  no.  These  nimble- 
fingered  boys  are  breaking  off  the  jets,  or  waste  ends  of  the 
type.  Quick,  a' n't  they?  Now  let  us  go  up-stairs  into  the 
dressing-room.  An  immense  beehive?  Yes,  indeed,  it  looks 
like  one.  The  lads  clustered  around  the  large  circular  stones, 
with  leather-protected  fingers,  rub  off  the  rough  edges  of  the 
type.  But  men  as  well  as  type  require  their  rough  edges 
taken  off  before  they  are  good  for  much  in  the  world.  These 
boys  at  the  tables  set  up  the  type  in  long  lines.  You  think 
that  if  you  could  pick  up  dollars  as  fast  as  they  pick  up  type, 
you  would  retire  an  independent  man  in  a  year  or  two  ?  We 
wish  you  could,  Mr.  Typograph ;  we  wish  you  could. 

The  lines  of  type  now  pass  into  the  hands  of  the  dresser. 
Observe  how  deftly  he  slips  them  into  a  long  stick,  shakes 
them  down  on  their  face,  screws  them  up,  fastens  tliem  into  a 


A   WALK  OVER  OUR  FOUNDRY.  38 

planing-board,  and  with  one  or  two  pushes  with  a  planing 
tool  accurately  grooves  the  bottom  of  the  type,  removing 
entirely  the  burr  left  when  the  jet  is  broken  off,  and  giving 
each  type  a  pair  of  legs  to  stand  upon,  till  it  is  worn  out  and 
returned  to  the  melting  kettle.  What  is  the  eye-glass  used 
for?  Why,  sir,  as  soon  as  the  types  are  grooved,  the  dresser 
narrowly  inspects  the  face  of  the  type,  and  if  an  imperfect 
letter  is  discovered  by  the  aid  of  the  magnifying  glass,  it  is 
incontinently  turned  out.  Ah,  sir,  if  we  were  all  inspected  as 
severely  as  he  criticizes  type,  some  of  us,  perhaps,  would 
hardly  pass  muster.  The  immaculate  types  are  next  put  up 
in  pages  of  convenient  size,  and  are  ready  for  the  purchaser. 

Let  us  drop  into  this  side-room.  Here  we  fit  up  our  ma- 
chines, make  our  moulds,  repair  damages  to  machinery,  Ac. 
The  multifarious  uses  of  these  lathes  you  must  be  familiar 
with:  this  ponderous  machine  is  an  iron-planer:  how  it 
makes  the  iron  chips  fly!  What  is  that  curiously-arranged 
lathe?  That  is  for  cutting  Labour-Saving  Rule, — the  rule 
which  you  have  found  so  convenient  and  economical  in  your 
job-room.  We  make  it  now  of  nine  different  styles  of  face : 
one  single,  two  dotted  or  hyphen-lines,  two  parallel,  and  four 
double,  of  varying  thickness.  They  are  all  cut  to  Pica  ems  in 
length,  and  are  furnished  with  mitred  corner-pieces,  so  con- 
trived, in  the  case  of  the  three  larger  sizes,  as  to  allow  the  rule 
to  be  used  single  or  double,  and  with  the  fine  lines  inside  or 
outside.  Our  brass  is  carefully  rolled  by  the  best  manufac- 
turers in  the  country,  and  is  sent  to  us  in  sheets.  That 
wicked-looking  shears  yonder  cuts  up  the  thinner  sheets  of 
brass  with  as  much  unction  as  Commissioner  Yeh's  execu- 
tioner slices  off  heads :  the  thick  brass  goes  under  a  circular 
steam-saw. 

Now,  sir,  while  we  are  up  here,  we  will  peep  into  the 
printers'  furnishing-room.  Isn't  this  a  beautiful  stereotype-* 
block?  Doesn't  it  do  your  eyes  good  to  look  at  it?  And 
these  brass  galleys,  and  mahogany  galleys  and  composing- 
sticks,  are  they  not  admirable?  Our  effort  in  this  depart- 
ment, as  in  all  others,  is  to  do  our  work  well.  All  our  mis- 
cellaneous wood-work  is  done  here, — stands,  racks,  drawers, 
stereotype  and  packing  boxes,  &c.  Some  curious  work  has 
been  designed  and  executed  for  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
as  well  as  brass  ciphering-irames  for  the  blind. 

Ah,  we  had  forgot  to  show  you  our  large-type  room.    On 


34  ^  WALK  OVER  OUR  FOUNDRY. 

our  way  to  the  electrotype  department,  we  will  glance  in  it 
The  types  you  see  here  cool  too  slowly  to  be  cast  in  a  machine, 
so  we  continue  to  pour  them.  Look  over  the  drawers,  and 
see  the  multitude  of  patterns.  Some  men  fancy  one  style,  and 
some  another.  So  we  try  to  meet  all  tastes.  Feel  how  solid 
the  type  is.  You  can't  squeeze  the  life  out  of  that  type  on  a 
power-press.    No,  indeed.    It  is  made  for  wear. 

Now,  Mr.  Typograph,  we  enter  the  grimed  and  murky 
electrotype-room.  Electrotyping,  you  are  aware,  is  simply 
stereotyping  in  copper.  Its  advantages  over  ordinary  stereo- 
typing are,  sharpness  of  outline  in  wood-cuts,  and  great  dura- 
bility. We  electrotype  a  book  occasionally;  but  the  art  is 
mainly  applied  to  the  production  of  duplicates  of  cuts,  jobs, 
binders'  stamps,  &c.  The  thing  to  be  electrotyped  is  laid 
upon  a  press,  and  a  prepared  mould  is  placed  over  it,  and  an 
exact  impression  taken.  This  is  well  dusted  with  plum- 
bago, and  then  deposited  in  a  galvanic  battery.  Nature  im- 
mediately takes  up  her  part  of  the  work,  and  a  brilliant  coat- 
ing of  copper  is  deposited  upon  the  mould.  When  sufficiently 
thick,  it  is  taken  out  of  the  battery,  and,  as  you  may  notice, 
presents  on  the  wrong  side  the  appearance  of  a  printed  sheet 
of  copper.  This  sheet  is  then  filled  up  on  the  back  to  the 
requisite  degree  of  thickness,  and  fastened  to  a  block,  ready  to 
be  used  with  type  on  a  common  printing-press.  Plumbago, 
you  remark,  does  not  improve  the  countenances  of  the  opera- 
tives ?  True ;  but  a  little  soap  and  water,  vigorously  applied, 
proves  the  title  of  these  intelligent  workmen  to  rank  among 
white  folks.  The  gas  that  chokes  you  is  from  the  batteries ; 
and  so,  if  you  please,  we  will  proceed  to  the  stereotype  depart- 
ment of  our  business. 

To  you,  Mr.  Typograph,  our  composing-rooms  present 
nothing  new,  except,  perhaps,  in  the  enormous  size  of  our 
♦founts  of  plain  type,  and  the  great  number  of  jobbing  founts. 
So  we  will  only  say,  that  in  ten  years  we  have  set  up  in  these 
rooms  and  stereotyped  more  than  eight  hundred  considerable 
works, — most  of  them  consisting  of  a  single  volume,  but  some 
of  from  two  to  twelve  volumes  each, — ^besides  a  multitude  of 
smaller  books,  tracts,  &c.  Among  the  rest  we  may  mention 
two  Quarto  Bibles  (one  of  them,  published  by  Peck  (fe  Bliss, 
the  grandest  ever  got  up  in  America),  Lippincott's  two  great 
Gazetteers,  Dr.  Kane's  Explorations,  The  North  American 
Sylva,   Thiers'   Napoleon,   and   Macaulay's   England.     AUi- 


A  WALK  OVER  OUB  FOUNDRY, 


35 


bone's  magnificent  Dictionary  of  Authors  and  Books  is  not 
yet  comj)leted.  After  the  pages  have  been  set  and  carefully 
read,  they  are  sent  down  to  the  casting-room.  Let  us  go 
down  and  see  how  they  fare  there. 

In  the  electrotype-room,  every  thing  is  as  black  as  the  brow 
of  a  coal-heaver :  in  the  casting-room,  all  is  as  wliite  as  the 
neck  of  a  belle.  Take  care,  sir,  or  your  coat  ^vill  commit  a 
larceny  of  our  plaster.  The  form  of  tyx3e  is  laid  on  this  stone, 
and  nicely  oiled ;  and  then  a  mixture  of  plaster  and  water — 
doesn't  it  look  like  a  good  wife's  buckwheat  batter  ?— is  poured 
over  it,  and  gently  rolled  in.  In  a  short  time  the  plaster  sets, 
and  the  mould  is  removed  by  screws  as  tenderly  as  a  nurse 
handles  a  baby.  It  is  then  dried  in  this  hot-tempered  oven, 
and,  after  the  moisture  is  all  evaporated,  it  is  laid  in  a  pan  and 
fastened  tightly,  as  you  see,  and  plunged  into  this  terrible  bath 


STEREOTYPE    CASTING-ROOM. 

of  a  thousand  pounds  of  molten  tyj^e  metal.  Phew  !  you  ex- 
claim, what  warm  work !  Yes,  sir ;  but  from  that  fiery  sea  of 
lead  soon  emerges  the  pan,  and  its  hissing  heat  is  gradually 
overcome  by  the  water  in  the  trough  into  which  the  pan  is 
lowered.  Now,  caster,  break  it  out.  There,  Mr.  Typograph, 
is  the  plate,  fixed, — immovable, — stereotyped.  The  mould  is 
ruined;  but  the  plate  is  comparatively  immortalized.  It  is 
rough  yet,  and,  like  an  uncouth  boy,  needs  polishing. 

This  next  room  is  the  stereotyi^e  finishing-room.  Here  the 
plates  are  carefully  examined,  picked,  shaved,  trimmed,  and 
boxed,  ready  for  the  printer.  Take  a  plate  in  your  hand  and 
examine  it:  it  will  bear  inspection.     You  say  it  is  far  better 


36  ^  WALK  OVER  OUR  FOUNDRY. 

than  the  untmnmed,  uneven  plates  of  English  founders  ?  We 
know  that,  sir;  for  we  have  often  had  to  re-finish  English 
plates  imjiorted  by  some  publisher  who  imagined  he  could 
save  a  little  by  ordering  a  duplicate  set  of  plates  of  a  popular 
foreign  book.  A  mistake,  sir.  Both  in  type-founding  and  in 
stereotyping  the  Americans  have  driven  the  foreigner  from 
the  field, — and  in  the  only  legitimate  way,  too:  simply  by 
surpassing  him. 

In  this  nook  on  the  left,  our  engraving  is  done.  The  draw- 
ing is  made  on  the  block  bj^  the  designer,  as  you  see :  'then 
patiently  and  skilfully  the  engraver  cuts  and  digs  out,  till  the 
lines  and  shapes  and  lights  and  shades  are  all  revealed  in  the 
beautiful  picture.  Our  work  in  this  department  gives  so  much 
satisfaction  that  we  are  seldom  without  orders. 

Now,  Mr.  Typograph,  we  shall  admit  you  into  our  editorial 
parlour.  Walk  in,  sir.  It  is  not  carpeted,  and  its  principal 
furnishings  comprise  a  desk  or  two,  a  few  presses,  stands  and 
cases,  with  multitudinous  type-surroundings.  Here,  sir,  we 
edit  and  print  our  Specimen  Books  and  our  Typographic  Ad- 
vertiser. Don't  you  see  poetical  flies  buzzing  around,  and 
atoms  of  wit-dust  floating  in  the  air,  and  odours  of  sentiment 
stealing  out  at  the  key-holes,  •  and  grains  of  common  sense 
sprinkled  all  over  the  floor.  Will  you  have  a  few  specimens 
as  curiosities?  You  say  you  have  already  a  good  assortment 
in  our  Advertiser  and  our  Book  ?  Very  well,  sir ;  we  hope  you 
will  treasure  them  up.  You  say  truly  when  you  remark,  that 
the  printing  done  in  this  room  is  seldom,  if  ever,  surpassed 
in  America.  We  know  that;  and  we  intend  to  stand  on  the 
topmost  round  of  the  typographical  ladder,  and  to  show 
our  fellow-artists  what  can  be  done  with  type  such  as  we 
manufacture. 

We  are  afraid,  Mr.  Typograph,  that  your  long  excursion 
over  the  house  has  wearied  you.  Let  us  get  down-stairs  again. 
These,  sir,  are  our  warerooms.  On  these  numerous  shelves 
are  ranged  founts  of  all  the  various  sorts  of  types  made  by  us, 
carefully  put  up,  labelled  and  classified,  and  all  accessible  at  a 
minute's  notice.  Our  customers  throughout  the  country  keep 
actively  employed  all  these  porters,  packers,  clerks,  salesmen, 
and  bookkeeper.  Many  of  our  customers  have  never  visited 
us ;  but  we  put  up  their  orders  with  as  conscientious  fidelity 
and  care  as  if  they  were  standing  before  us  and  watching  our 
every  movement.    We  are  happy  to  see  them,  and  hope  none 


A  WALK  OVER  OUR  FOUNDRY,  37 

will  visit  our  city  without  calling  in  and  taking  us  by  the 
hand.  We  like  to  see  them  face  to  face,  so  that  we  can  hang 
up  their  portraits  in  our  mental  gallery ;  and,  when  we  after- 
ward receive  a  letter  from  them,  we  can  imagine  that  we  are 
hearing  them  talk  to  us  rather  than  reading  their  writing. 

The  side-door  on  which  your  eye  has  just  rested  leads  to 
one  of  our  fire-proofs.  Enter  it.  Here,  sir,  are  safely  stored 
many  thousand  matrices,  as  well  as  moulds,  when  not  in  use. 
As  it  would  require  the  labour  of  many  weary  years  to  replace 
them  if  destroyed,  we  endeavour  to  keep  them  secure  from  the 
danger  of  ruin  by  fire.  The  upbuilding  of  a  complete  type- 
foundry  is  a  work  of  generations. 

You  will  hardly  care  to  look  into  the  basement, — the  store- 
house of  ink  and  other  typographical  appliances  ?  Your  time 
is  exhausted?  Then,  sir,  we  bid  you  good-day.  A  safe  return 
to  your  pleasant  family,  Mr.  Typograph. 


IMPLEMENTS  OR  TOOLS  OF  THE  ART 


TYPES, 

HE  types  or  letters  generally  used  for 
printing  in  Europe  and  America 
are  termed  Roman,  Italic,  and  Old 
English,  or  Black  Letter, 

ROMAN  LETTER. 

Roman  letter  has  long  been  held 
in  the   highest  estimation,  and  is 
the    established    character   of   this 
country,  of  England,  France,  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  Italy.    In  Germany, 
and  the  kingdoms  and  states  which 
surround  the  Baltic,  the  letters  in 
use  are  founded  on  the  Gothic  cha- 
racter; but,  even  in  those  nations, 
scientific  works  are  printed  in  their 
own  language  with  Roman  letters. 
The  Dutch  adhere  to  the  black'  letter  in  books  of  devotion 
and  religious  treatises ;  while  they  make  use  of  the  Roman  in 
their  curious  and  learned  works. 

All  printing  down  to  1465  was  in  black  letter,  when  charac- 
ters somewhat  improved  were  introduced  at  Venice.  In  1466, 
the  style  known  as  Roman  first  appeared,  in  a  volume  printed 
at  Rome :  this  style  was  brought  nearly  to  its  present  degree 
of  j)erfection  in  Italy  as  early  as  1490. 

The  Roman  letters  consist  of  circles,  arcs  of  circles,  and 
straight  lines ;  and,  therefore,  on  the  score  of  simplicity,  pre- 
38 


TYPES.  39 

cision,  and  elegance,  they  certainly  deserve  to  be  adopted  as 
the  standard  for  all  nations. 

A  printer,  in  choosing  type,  should  not  only  attend  to  the 
cut  of  the  letter,  but  should  also  observe  that  its  shank  is  per- 
fectly true,  and  that  it  lines  or  ranges  with  accuracy,  and  is 
of  equal  height.  The  quality  of  the  metal  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed, and  the  finish  of  the  letter,  demand  particular  atten- 
tion, as  the  competition  for  low  prices  among  some  of  the 
smaller  foundries  (which  have  sprung  into  existence  through 
the  facilities  afforded  them  of  multiplying  matrices  by  the 
electrotype  process)  has  induced  them  to  use  an  inferior 
metal,  and  to  turn  out  their  letters  without  due  regard  to  the 
nicety  of  finish  which  is  indispensable  for  proper  justification. 

It  is  important  that  types  should  have  a  deep  face,  their 
hollows  being  in  proportion  to  the  width  of  the  respective 
letters,  and  that  the  letters  should  have  a  deep  nick,  which 
should  differ  from  other  founts  of  that  body  in  the  same 
house. 

ITALIC  LETTER. 

For  the  invention  of  this  letter  the  world  is  iiidehted  to  Aldus 
ManutiuSf  by  birth  a  HomaUj  who  erected  a  printing-office  in 
Venice  in  1490,  where  he  introduced  Roman  types  of  a  neater 
cuty  and  gave  birth  to  that  striking  letter  which  is  known  to  most 
nations  by  the  name  of  Italic;  though  the  Germans  and  their 
adherents  show  themselves  as  unfair  in  this  respect  as  they  did 
with  the  Roman,  by  calling  it  Cursiv,  in  order  to  stifle  the  memory 
of  its  original  descent,  and  deprive  the  Romans  of  the  merit  due 
to  the  ingenuity  of  their  countryman. 

In  the  first  instance  it  was  termed  Venetian,  as  Manutius 
was  a  resident  at  Venice  when  he  brought  it  to  perfection; 
but,  not  long  after,  it  was  dedicated  to  the  state  of  Italy,  to 
prevent  any  dispute  that  might  arise  from  other  nations  claim- 
ing a  priority. 

Italic  was  originally  designed  to  distinguish  such  parts  of  a 
book  as  might  be  considered  not  strictly  to  belong  to  the  body 
of  the  work,  as  Prefaces,  Introductions,  Annotations,  &c.,  all 
which  sub-parts  of  a  work  were  formerly  printed  in  this  cha- 
racter ;  so  that  at  least  two-fifths  of  a  fount  was  composed  of 
Italic  letter. 

At  present  it  is  used  more  sparingly,  being  superseded  by 
the  more  elegant  mode  of  enclosing  extracts  within  inverted 


40  TYPES. 

commas,  and  poetry  and  annotations  in  a  smaller-sized  type. 
It  is  often  serviceable  in  distinguishing  the  head  or  subject- 
matter  of  a  chapter  from  the  chapter  itself,  but  is  still  too 
often  arbitrarily  made  use  of  in  emphasizing  sentences  or 
words. 

The  frequent  use  of  Italic  words  among  Roman  destroys  in 
a  great  measure  the  beauty  of  printing,  and  often  confuses  the 
reader,  who,  pausing  to  consider  why  such  words  are  more 
strongly  noted,  loses  the  context,  and  must  go  back  to  regain 
the  sense  of  his  subject. 

BLACK   LETTER. 

Ci)tg  letter,  U)|)ic]&  )xsm  usrt  in  ti)e  infancg  of 
^Printing,  tiescentieti  from  tije  ([5otf)tc  ci&aracterie; :  it 
10  calletJ  ®otf)ic  tg  gome,  anti  ®ltJ  ©ngliisi^  bg 
otfiers ;  int  printers  term  it  ISlaefe  iletter,  on  aeeount 
of  iX%  tatting  a  larger  eompass  tf)an  eitf)er  ISoman 
or  Stalie,  tlje  full  antJ  gpreatiing  gtrofeeg  thereof 
appearing  more  filaelt  upon  paper* 

On  the  introduction  of  the  Roman  character,  the  use  of 
black  letter  began  to  decline,  and  it  was  seldom  used  except 
in  law  works,  particularly  statute  law.  It  was  at  length  ex- 
pelled from  these,  and  only  made  its  appearance  in  the  heads 
of  law  blanks,  and  as  a  general  display  letter. 

SAXON  CHARACTERS. 

The  Saxon  characters  originated  probably  from  the  Gothic, 
but  were  altered  or  modified  after  the  Latin  ones  which  the 
Saxons  found  in  use  in  England  in  the  fifth  century.  The 
first  Saxon  types  were  cut  by  John  Daye,  under  the  patronage 
of  Archbishop  Parker,  about  the  year  1567.  We  give  the 
Lord's  Prayer  in  modern  Anglo-Saxon  types : 

Paebep  ujie  })u  l>e  eapt  on  heojrenum.  8i  }?in  nama  gehalsob.  To- 
becume  hm  jaice.  Lepup^e  )?in  piUa  on  eop]?an,  ppa  ppa  on  heope- 
num.  Upne  bseshpamlicaii  hlap  Sype  up  to  baeg.  'Kwb  pop^yp  up 
upe  Syltap,  ppa  ppa  pe  popgipa'S  upum  ^j-lcenbum.  "Knb  ne  gelaebbe 
j?u  up  on  copcnunge.  ac  alyp  up  op  yp^le.     So  'Slice. 


NAMES  AND  SIZES,  41 


NAMES  AND  SIZES  OF  TYPE, 

The  principal  bodies  to  which  printing  letters  are  cast  in 
England  and  America  are  the  following : — 

1.  Diamond.  11.  English. 

2.  Pearl.  12.  Columbian. 

3.  Agate.  13.  Great  Primer. 

4.  Nonpareil.  14.  Paragon. 

5.  Minion.  15.  Double  Small  Pica. 

6.  Brevier.  16.  Double  Pica. 

7.  Bourgeois.  17.  Double  English. 

8.  Long  Primer.  18.  Double  Great  Primer. 

9.  Small  Pica.  19.  Double  Paragon. 
10.  Pica.                 •  20.  Canon. 

Besides  the  foregoing,  a  smaller  size  than  Diamond,  called 
Brilliant,  is  now  cast  in  the  foundry  of  Mackellar,  Smiths  & 
Jordan,  the  body  of  which  is  just  one-half  of  Minion.  Even 
this  is  surpassed  in  smalluoss  ])y  a  music  type  cast  in  the  same 
foundry,  named  Excelsior,  wiiicli  is  precisely  one-half  the  size 
of  Nonpareil.  Another  size  omitted  in  the  list  is  Minionette, 
which  is  next  above  Nonpareil,  and  is  largelj'^  used  for  the 
splendid  series  of  ornamental  borders  lately  originated. 

Canon  is  conceded  to  have  been  first  produced  by  a  French 
artisan,  and  was  probably  employed  in  some  work  relating  to 
the  canons  of  the  Church ;  to  which  the  German  title,  Missal, 
alludes. 

Two-line  Double  Pica,  Two-line  Great  Primer,  Two-line 
English,  Two-line  Pica,  and  Double  Pica,  owe  their  names  to 
the  respective  bodies  of  which  the  depth  of  two  em  quadrates 
answers  to  one  of  the  double  sizes. 

Paragon  is  the  only  letter  that  has  preserved  its  name,  being 
called  so  by  all  the  printing  nations.  Its  appellation  shows 
that  it  was  first  cut  in  France,  and  at  the  same  time  leads  us 
to  suppose  that  the  style  of  letter  in  that  country  was  at  that 
time  but  indifferent,  and  that  Paragon  happening  to  turn  out 
a  letter  of  better  shape  than  the  rest,  it  received  the  name  of 
perfect  pattern,  which  the  word  Paragon  implies. 

Pica  is  universally  considered  as  the  standard  type,  and  by 
it  furniture  is  measured,  and  quotations  and  labour-saving 
rules  are  graduated. 

4* 


42  TYPES. 

Great  Primer^  called  Tertia  in 
Germany,  is  one  of  the  major 
sizes  of  type  which  were  early 
used  for  printing  considerable 
works,  and  especially  the  Bible ; 
on  which  account  some  persons 
term  it  Bible  Text.  The  French 
name  is  Gros  Romain. 

English  is  called  Mittel  by  the  Ger- 
mans, and  St.  Augustin  by  the  French 
and  Dutch;  the  word  Mittel  (Middle) 
intimating  that  the  former  sizes  of  letter 
were  seven  in  number,  the  centre  of 
which  was  English,  with  Prima,  Secunda, 
and  Tertia  on  one  side,  and  Pica,  Long 
Primer,  and  Brevier  on  the  other.  The 
name  St.  Augustin  was  probably  given 
because  the  writings  of  that  Father  were 
the  first  works  done  in  that  letter. 

Pica  is  called  Cicero  by  the  French  and 
Germans.  As  the  preceding  size  was  distin- 
guished by  the  name  of  St.  Augustine^  so  this 
has  been  honoured  with  that  of  Cicero,  on 
account  of  the  Epistles  of  that  writer  having 
been  first  done  in  letter  of  this  size.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  the  name  was  given  by  the 
French  or  the  Germans, 


NAMES  AND  SIZES,  43 

Small  Pica  is  a  grade  below  Pica,  and  is  now  gene- 
rally employed  in  octavo  volumes,  and  is,  indeed, 
almost  the  only  size  used  for  printing  legal  reports 
and  other  law  books.  The  French  call  this  letter 
Philosophic,  which,  however,  is  merely  a  Pica  face  on 
a  Small  Pica  body.     The  Germans  term  it  Brevier. 

Long  Primer.  Upon  the  supposition  that  some  bodies 
of  letter  took  their  names  from  works  in  which  they  were 
first  employed,  we  are  induced  to  believe  that  the  Germans 
gave  the  name  of  Corpus  to  this  character  on  account  of 
their  Corpus  Juris  being  first  done  in  this  size.  The 
French  call  this  letter  Petit  Komain. 

Bourgeois  is  a  very  useful  and  convenient  size  of  letter.  It 
is  frequently  used  in  double-column  octavo  pages.  The  name 
indicates  that  it  originated  in  France ;  although  type  of  this 
body  is  now  called  Gaillarde  by  French  printers.  Two  lines 
of  this  letter  are  equivalent  to  one  line  of  Great  Primer,  or 
four  lines  of  Diamond. 

Brevier  was  first  used  for  printing  the  Breviaries,  or  Roman 
Catholic  Church  books,  and  hence  its  name.  The  Germans  call 
it  Petit,  and  Jungfer  (maiden  letter).  It  is  an  admirable  type, 
and  cannot  conveniently  be  dispensed  with  in  any  considerable 
printing-office. 

Minion  follows  Brevier,  and  is  commonly  used  for  newspapers,  and 
for  notes  and  indexes  in  book-work.  Its  name  is  due  probably  to  its 
being  smaller  than  any  type  in  use  at  the  period  of  its  invention.  It 
fills  a  useful  place  in  a  printing-office. 

Nonpareil  came  next  in  order:  and  its  originator,  supposing  that  he  had 
reached  the  extreme  of  diiniinitivcness,  gave  it  this  triumi)hant  title.  It  is  exten- 
sively used,  though  mostly  on  iu;\vspapers,  and  for  notes  and  indexes  for  duo- 
decimo books  and  smaller.  It  is  certainly  the  smallest  type  that  should  be 
allowed  in  book-work. 

Agate  probably  arose  from  the  necessities  of  newspaper  publishers.  As  patronage  in- 
creased, it  became  desirable  to  have  a  type  less  in  size  than  Nonpareil,  for  the  advertise- 
ments, shipping  news,  markets.  &c. ;  and  Agate  was  made  to  meet  the  emergency.  It  is 
now  extensively  used  for  pocket  editions  of  the  Bible  and  Prayer  Books. 

Pearl  may  be  said  to  have  be'u  bdni  ot  ;n!i!n;i(ai.  As  punch-cutters  became  more  expert,  some 
one  possessed  of  a  keen  eye  ami  a  ilclicai''  uiccli  iui>-al  finger  determined  to  surpass  in  smalluess 
the  achievements  of  his  predecessors,  lieiioe  the  origin  of  this  type.  This  type  is  also  emj)ioyed 
in  printing  miniature  vulumes. 

Diamond  followed,  as  a  matter  of  course;  for  human  ingenuity,  when  provoked,  seems  determined  to  go  to  the 
utmost  verge  of  possibility.  This  type  is  so  minute  that  a  pound  of  it  will  contain  more  than  3300  of  the  letter  i ; 
yet,  to  produce  each  letter  of  an  alphabet,  a  steel  punch  has  to  be  cut,  and  a  matrix  made,  in  which  the  types  are 
cast  one  by  one,  and,  being  set  up  in  lines,  are  rubbed  and  dressed  by  the  founder  for  the  use  of  the  compositor. 

Brilliant.  Expert  penmen,  it  Is  said,  have  succeeded  in  writing  the  Lord's  Prayer  upon  the  edge  o(  a  sheef  of  paper.  A  typt>- 
cutter  in  Berlin,  mora  surprisingly,  has'tbrmed  a  type  so  minute  as  to  be  scarcely  readable  without  a  good  magnifying  glass.  The  type 
of  this  paragraph,  tliough  not  so  small  as  the  microscopic  letters  produced  in  Prussia,  is  yet  so  diminutive  that  even  Diamond  is  larg» 
by  comparison.     Of  the  letter  i  nearly  4000  go  to  a  pound. 


44  TYPES, 


GRADATION  OF  TYPES. 

The  following  specimen  shows  the  proportion  which  one 
size  of  type  bears  to  another  in  tvidth;  but  it  is  necessary  to 
observe  that  it  must  be  taken  with  certain  limitations,  because 
each  founder  has  letter  of  every  size  that  will  either  drive  ovit 
or  get  in  with  others  of  the  same  body;  therefore  it  is  im- 
possible for  us  to  present  our  readers  with  a  regular  grada- 
tion of  the  different  sizes  from  Great  Primer  to  Brilliant  inclu- 
sive. The  limitation  of  each  line  is  marked  by  an  inverted 
full-point. 

When  in  the  course  of  human* 

When  in  the  course  of  human  *  events 
When  in  the  course  of  human*  events  it  b 
When  in  the  course  of  human*  events  it  becomes 
When  in  the  course  of  human-  events  it  becomes  ncce 
When  in  the  course  of  human*  events  it  becomes  necessary 
When  in  the  course  of  human  •  events  it  becomes  necessary  f 
When  in  the  course  of  human*  events  it  becomes  necessary  for  one 
When  in  the  course  of  human-  events  it  becomes  necessary  for  one  people  to 
When  in  the  course  of  human  •  events  it  becomes  necessary  for  one  people  to  dissolve 
When  in  the  course  of  human*  events  it  becomes  necessary  for  one  people  to  dissolve  the  pol 
■When  in  the  course  of  human  •  events  it  becomes  necessary  for  one  people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands  wh 
When  in  the  course  of  human  •  events  it  becomes  necessary  for  one  people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have  connected  th 

PROPORTIONS  OF  TYPES. 

It  is  important  for  a  printer  to  be  acquainted  with  the 
exact  proportion  which  one  body  of  letter  bears  to  another  in 
depth.  Without  this  know^ledge,  he  cannot  form  an  accurate 
judgment  as  to  the  size  of  the  type  most  suitable  for  a  work 
intended  to  be  confined  to  a  given  number  of  sheets ;  neither 
can  he  form  a  correct  opinion  as  to  the  extent  of  a  work,  after 
casting  otf  the  copy,  unless  he  possess  a  rule  whereby  to  guide 
his  calculation  as  to  the  quantity  of  copy  which  the  proposed 
type  may  take  in.  We,  therefore,  give  a  scale  showing  the 
relative  proportions  of  various  letters.  Anj^  printer  may  form 
a  scale  by  setting  up  the  figures  of  his  various  founts,  and 
printing  them  on  a  card  or  d  rv  paper. 


PROPORTIONS  OF  TYPES. 


45 


J^  ib  i:a 


si-  3^ 

6  It- 

7  6 


2§;  2i 


39 34 30- 


9 

10 

11 

12 

13 
-14- 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

2-4 

25 

26 

27 
-28- 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 
_41_ 

42 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 


9 

10 

11 

12 
"13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24_ 
"25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 
_36_ 

37 


3^ 

4 
5 
6 

7 


Ibj 

4^ 
5 

6 

7 


1§ 
2^ 


3|    3^ 


9  S 

10  9_ 

"ii—io 

12  11 

13  12 

14  13 

15  14 

It  15 


16 
17 

18 


21  19 

22  20 

23  21 

24  22 

25  23 

26  24 
H  26 


10  9 

}f  11  10 

M  12  11 

15  13  12 

16  14  13 
.17  15_14 

}^  16  1^ 

19  17  1^ 

20  ^^ 


n 
2' 
3 
4 

5 

6 

'  7~ 

8 

9 
10 


II 

2P 

3 

4 

5 

6- 

7 

8 

9 


18 
19 


16 
17 


26 

.27_ 


-30—^1—: 


31 


28 


51  56 

52  57 
>3  58 
't  59 
56  60 

7  61 

8  62 
39  63 
ro  64 
n  65 

J2  66 

^3  67 

97       84       74  68 

°°""'''~;^  69 

77  ''0 

78  71 

79  72 
S  73 


52      46 

54      ^a 
-55- 


32  29 

33  30 

34  31 

35  32 

36  33 

37  34 

38  35 

41  ^' 

42  ?? 

43  39 

44  40 

45  41 

46  42 

47  43 

48  44 

-^?— 45_ 


21 

22  --  -10 

23  20  ]l 

24  21  1^ 

25  22  20 
.26-23-21- 

%  24  22 

99  25  23 

30  26  24 

31  27  25 

32  28 

33  29  97 
.g-30jL 

36 

37  X-  30 


11   10 
12_11_ 
13   12 
13 
14 


14 
15 
16 


26 


31 


60 
51 
52 
53 


46 
47 

48 


28- 
32    29 

38  33 

39  34    31 

40  35    32 

41  36    33 

42  37    34 
■44-38-35- 

45  39    36 

46  40    37 


17  15 

18_16 

19  17" 

20  18 

21  19 

22  20 

23  oi 

24_   o_ 
25 

26  23 

27  24 

28  25 

29  26 
.30_27- 

31  28 

32  29 


25 

3^ 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 


46 


TYPES. 


A  BILL  OF  PICA, 


The  following  is  reckoned  by  the  founders  a  regular  fount, 
perfect  in  all  its  sorts : — 

A  BILL   OF   800  LBS.   OF  PICA. 


a 

.  8500 

, 

4500 

A   ...   600 

A 

.    300 

b  .. 

1600 

800 

B   ...   400 

B 

200 

c 

3000 

: 

600 

C   ...   500 

C 

.    250 

d  .. 

4400 

2000 

D   ...   500 

D 

.    250 

e 

.  12000 

- 

1000 

E   ...   600 

E 

300 

f   .. 

2500 

?   ... 

200 

F   ...   400 

F 

200 

g 

1700 

! 

150 

G   ...   400 

G 

200 

h 

6400 

' 

700 

H   ...   400 

H 

200 

i 

8000 

(    - 

300 

I   ...   800 

I 

400 

,j   •• 

400 

[    - 

150 

J   ...   300 

J 

.    150 

k  .. 

800 

-;:c 

100 

K   ...   300 

K 

.    150 

1   .. 

4000 

X  ■■'■ 

+ 

100 

L   ...   500 

L 

.    250 

m  .. 

3000 

100 

M   ...   400 

M 

200 

n 

8000 

'i       ... 

100 

N   ...   400 

N 

200 

o  .. 

8000 

1   ... 

100 

0   ...  '400 

0 

200 

P  •• 

1700 

If   ... 

60 

P   ...   400 

P 

200 

q   .. 

500 

Q,   ...   180 

Q    .. 

90 

r 

6200 

1   ... 

1300 

R   ...   400 

R 

200 

s 

8000 

2   ... 

1200 

S   ...   500 

S 

250 

t   .. 

9000 

3   ... 

1 100 

T   ...   650 

T 

.    3^6 

u 

3400 

4   ... 

1000 

U   ...   300 

U 

.    150 

V 

1200 

5   ... 

1000 

V   ...   300 

V 

.    150 

w  .. 

2000 

6   ... 

1000 

W  ...   400 

W   .. 

200 

X 

400 

7   ... 

1000 

X   ...   180 

X 

90 

y  •• 

2000 

8   ... 

1000 

Y   ...   300 

Y 

.    150 

z 

200 

9   ... 

1000 

Z   ...   80 

Z 

40 

&  .. 

200 

0   ... 

1300 

M      ...   40 

M        .. 

20 

ff  .. 

400 

CE   ...   30 

CE   .. 

15 

fi 

500 
200 

e 

200 

fl  .'; 

a  ... 

200 

Spaces. 

ffl  .. 

100 

a  ... 

200 

Thick 

18000 

ffi  .. 

.   150 

e   ... 

200 

Middle 

12000 

8e  .. 

100 

Thin 

.8000 

oe  .. 

60 

All 

other 

Hair 

3000 

accents 

,  100 

em  Quads 

2500 

—  .. 

.   150 

each. 

en  Quads 

5000 

IZ 

Large  Quadrates, 
80  lbs. 

about 

Italic,  one-tenth  of  Roman. 

Owing  to  the  varying  styles  of  authors  and  the  diverse  sub- 
jects of  books,  there  will  generally  be  found  a  number  of  par- 


A  FOUNT  OF  LETTER,  4tl 

ticular  sorts  deficient  in  a  fount,  whateA^er  the  proportions 
may  have  been  at  first.  A  new  fount  of  letter  may  run  evenly 
on  a  work  in  general  literature  written  in  the  third  person, 
while  a  novel  filled  with  dialogues  in  the  first  person  will 
rapidly  exhaust  certain  letters,  and  require  sorts  to  render  the 
fount  serviceable  to  its  full  general  capacity.  So  with  scientific 
and  other  books.  Even  in  the  case  of  two  authors  writing  on 
the  same  subject,  there  is  no  certainty  that  the  fount  will  run 
alike.  The  master-printer,  therefore,  to  keep  the  entire  letter 
in  use,  is  compelled  to  order  sorts,  and  his  fount  is  thus  con- 
stantly growing  larger. 

A  FOUNT  OF  LETTER. 

A  COMPLETE  fount  of  letter  is  comprised  under  nine  heads, 
in  which  is  contained  the  following  sorts : — 

1.  Capitals. 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWX 

Y  Z  .E  05  <fe. 

2.  Small  Capitals. 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTU 
VWXYZ^CE&. 

3.  Lower  Case. 

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwx 

y  zseoefffiffiflffl. 

4.  Figures. 
123456789  0. 

5.  PointSj  &c. 
,;:.?!-'  0  []*t1:  ni  If- --^. 

6.  Four  kinds  of  spaces. 

7.  Em  and  en  quadrates. 

8.  Two,  three,  and  four  em  quadrates. 

9.  Accents. 

These  are  the  ordinary  sorts  cast  to  a  fount  of  letter,  and  are 
classified  by  founders  as  long,  short,  ascending,  descending, 
kerned,  and  double  letters. 

Long  Letters  fill  the  whole  depth  of  the  body,  and  are 


48  TYPEiS. 

both  ascending  and  descending,  such  in  the  Roman  as  Q,  and 
j,  and  in  tlie  Italic,/. 

Short  Letters  have  the  face  cast  on  the  middle  of  the 
body  (by  founders  called  shank),  as  a,  c,  e,  m,  n,  o,  r,  s,  u,  v, 
w,  X,  z,  all  of  which  will  admit  of  being  bearded  above  and 
below  the  face,  both  in  Roman  and  Italic. 

Ascending  Letters  are  all  the  Roman  and  Italic  capitals ; 
in  the  lower  case,  b,  d,  f,  h,  i,  k,  1,  t. 

Descending  Letters  are  g,  p,  q,  y,  in  Roman  and  Italic. 

Kerned  Letters  are  such  as  have  part  of  the  face  hanging 
over  either  one  or  both  sides  of  the  body.  In  Roman,  f  and  j 
are  the  only  kerned  letters ;  but,  in  Italic,  d,  g,  j,  I,  y  are 
kerned  on  one  side,  and /on  both  sides  of  its  face.  Most  Italic 
capitals  are  kerned  on  one  side  of  the  face. 

The  Double  Letters  in  modern  use  are  flf,  fi,  fla,  fl,  ffl ;  and 
these  are  so  cast  to  prevent  the  breaking  of  the  beak  of  the  f 
when  used  with  a  tall  letter  following. 

Printers  divide  a  fount  of  letter  into  two  classes. 
1.  The  upper  ease 


O      rrfj.      7  (     S07'tS. 

2.  The  lower  case  j 

The  upper  case  sorts  are  capitals,  small  capital  letters,  and 
references. 

The  lower  case  consists  of  small  letters,  double  letters, 
figures,  j)oints,  spaces,  quadrates,  <fec. 

CAPITALS. 

The  use  of  capitals  in  the  present  day  is  restricted  to  proper 
names  of  persons,  places,  &c.  There  are,  however,  some  authors 
who  deem  it  essential  to  mark  emphatic  words  with  a  capital ; 
in  such  cases,  the  author  should  alwaj^s  send  his  copy  properly 
prepared  in  this  particular  to  the  printer,  or  he  will  become 
liable  to  the  charge  the  compositor  is  allowed  to  make  for  loss 
of  time  in  making  any  alteration.  The  method  of  denoting  a 
capital,  or  words  of  capital  letters,  in  manuscript,  is  by  under- 
scoring it  with  three  distinct  lines. 

SMALL  CAPITALS. 

Small  Capitals  are  in  general  cast  to  Roman  founts  only, 
and  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  stronger  emphasis  to 


j'(jiS'l\s.  49 

a  word  than  can  be  conveyed  by  Italic.  They  are  likewise 
used  for  running  heads,  heads  of  chapters,  &c.  The  first  word 
of  every  section  or  chapter  is  commonly  put  in  small  capitals; 
but  when  a  two-line  initial  letter  is  used,  the  remainder  of  the 
word  should  be  in  capitals. 

The  small  capitals  c,  o,  s,  v,  w,  x,  z  so  closely  resemble  the 
same  letters  in  the  lower  case,  that  care  is  required  to  prevent 
intermixing. 

In  manuscript,  small  capitals  are  denoted  by  two  lines 
drawn  under  the  words. 

POINTS. 

Points  consist  of  a  comma,  semicolon,  colon,  period  or  full- 
point,  note  of  interrogation,  and  note  of  admiration. 

Points  are  not  of  equal  anti(iuity  with  printing,  though,  not 
long  after  its  invention,  the  necessit^^  of  introducing  stops  or 
pauses  in  sentences,  for  the  guidance  of  the  reader,  gave  birth 
to  the  colon  and  full-point.  In  process  of  time,  the  comma  was 
added,  which  was  then  no  other  than  a  perpendicular  line, 
proportioned  to  the  body  of  the  ] oiler.  These  three  points 
were  the  only  ones  used  till  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  (CMitury, 
when  Aldus  Manutius,  among  otlier  improvements  in  the  art 
of  printing,  gave  a  better  shape  to  the  comma,  and  added  the 
semicolon  ;  the  comma  denoting  the  shortest  pause,  the  semi- 
colon next,  then  the  colon,  and  the  full-point  terminating  the 
sentence.  The  notes  of  interrogation  and  admiration  w^ere 
introduced  many  years  after. 

Perhaps  there  never  existed  on  any  subject,  among  men  of 
learning,  a  greater  difference  of  opinion  than  on  the  true  mode 
of  punctuation.  Some  sprinkle  the  page  with  commas  almost 
as  promiscuously  as  if  from  a  pepper-box;  some  make  the 
pause  of  a  semicolon  where  the  sense  will  only  bear  a  comma  ; 
some  contending  for  what  is  termed  stiff  pointing,  and  others 
for  altogether  the  reverse. 

The  want  of  an  established  practice  is  much  to  be  regretted. 
The  loss  of  time  to  a  compositor,  occasioned,  often  thi-ough 
whim  or  caprice,  in  altering  points  unnecessarily,  is  a  great 
hardship.  Scarcelj^  nine  works  out  of  ten  are  sent  properly 
prepared  to  the  press :  either  the  writing  is  illegible,  the  spell- 
ing incorrect,  or  the  punctuation  defective.  Unless  the  author 
will  take  the  responsibility  of  the  pointing  entirely  on  himself, 

5 


50  TYPE>S. 

it  will  be  to  the  advantage  of  the  compositor  to  find  not  a 
single  point  in  his  copy,  unless  to  terminate  a  sentence,  rather 
than  have  his  mind  confused  by  commas  and  semicolons 
placed  indiscriminately,  in  the  hurry  of  writing,  without  any 
regard  to  propriety.* 

The  Comma  [9]  marks  the  smallest  grammatical  division, 
and  commonly  represents  the  shortest  pause  in  reading. 

Commas  are  used  to  denote  extracts  or  quotations  from 
other  works,  dialogue  matter,  or  passages  or  expressions  not 
original,  by  placing  two  of  them  inverted  before  the  first  word 
of  the  passage  quoted,  and  ending  with  two  apostrophes.  A 
thin  space  is  used  to  keep  the  inverted  commas  free  from  the 
matter.  The  method  of  running  them  down  the  sides  to  the 
end  of  the  quotation  has  been  found  inconvenient,  particularly 
where  a  quotation  occurs  within  a  quotation,  or  a  speech  within 
a  speech;  the  proper  method  of  distinguishing  these  is  by 
placing  a  single  inverted  comma  before  such  extra  quotation, 
and  concluding  with  a  single  apostrophe.  Where  both  quota- 
tions close  together,  put  three  apostrophes,  observing  after  the 
first  to  place  a  thin  space. 

Inverted  commas  were  first  used  by  Guillemet,  a  French- 
man, to  supersede  the  use  of  Italic  letter.  As  an  acknow- 
ledgment, his  countrymen  call  them  after  his  name.  French 
founders  cast  them  double,  thus  [((»].  MacKellar,  Smiths  & 
Jordan,  Philadelphia,  furnish  them  in  this  way  when  desired. 

A  single  comma  inverted  is  used  as  an  abbreviation  of  the 
word  Mac,  as  in  M'Gowen. 

The  Semicolon  [;]  is  used  to  separate  such  parts  of  a 
sentence  as  are  somewhat  less  closely  connected  than  those 
separated  by  a  comma. 

The  CoiiON  [ :  ]  is  employed  in  a  sentence  between  parts  less 
connected  than  those  which  are  divided  by  a  semicolon,  but 
not  so  independent  as  separate,  distinct  sentences. 

The  Period  or  Full-point  [,]  serves  to  indicate  the  end 
of  a  sentence  which  is  independent  of  any  following  sentence. 

*  Wilson's  Treatise  on  English  runduation  is  a  full  and  explicit  work  on  this 
subject,  and  should  be  studied  1>y  every  printer  and  author. 


POINTS.  51 

When  used  in  abbreviations,  it  loses  its  effect  as  a  full  stop  in 
the  punctuation,  unless  at  the  end  of  a  sentence.  In  some 
works  this  point  is  discarded  as  a  mark  of  abbreviation,  as  in 
Mr  Dr  &c. 

Full-points  are  sometimes  used  as  leaders  in  tables  of  con- 
tents, figure- work,  <fec. ;  but  dotted  rules  or  leaders  are  much 
better  for  this  purpose,  as  they  not  only  supply  the  place  of 
full-points  and  quadrates,  but  save  considerable  time  in  the 
composition. 

The  sign  of  Interrogation  [?]  is  used  to  denote  a  ques- 
tion. It  is  proper  that  every  interrogation  or  question  should 
begin  with  a  large  letter,  whether  capitals  are  used  in  the 
matter  or  not ;  according  to  the  method  observed  in  the  Bible, 
where  interrogatives  and  responses,  and  the  beginning  of  say- 
ings, allocutions,  &c.  are  intimated  b^^  a  capital  letter. 

The  sign  of  Admiration  or  Exclamation  [!]  denotes  sur- 
prise, astonishment,  rapture,  and  the  like  sudden  emotions 
of  the  mind,  whether  upon  lamenting  or  rejoicing  occasions. 
This  sign  is  put  after  the  particles  Ah!  Alas!  Oh!  cVc. ;  but 
there  are  exceptional  cases,  as,  Ali  me!   Alas  ihe  day!  iV:c. 

All  the  points,  except  the  <(.mma  and  the  period,  should  be 
preceded  by  a  hair-space;  the  comma  and  full-point  do  not 
require  any  space  to  bear  them  off. 

The  em  dash  [ — ],  though  it  cannot  be  denominated  a  point, 
is  frequently  used  in  peculiar  woiks  as  a  substitute  for  the 
comma,  or  for  the  colon,  and  is  found  particularly  serviceable 
in  rhapsodical  writing,  where  interrupted  sentences  frequently 
occur. 

A  dash  stands  for  a  sign  of  repetition  in  catalogues  of  goods, 
where  it  iiiiplies  ditto:  and  in  catalogues  of  books,  where  a 
(lash  simiilies  rjusdi'in,  instead  of  repeating  the  author's  name 
with  the  title  of  every  separate  treatise  of  his  writing;  but  no 
sign  of  repetition  should  be  at  th(^  top  of  a  page,  but  the  name 
of  the  author,  or  of  the  merchandise,  should  be  set  out  again 
at  length. 

A  dash  .likewise  stands  for  to,  or  tilt :  as,  chap.  xvi.  3-17; 
that  is,  from  the  third  to  the  seventeenth  verse  inclusive.  At 
other  times  it  serves  for  an  index,  to  give  notice  that  what 
follows  it  is  a  corollary  of  what  has  preceded. 


52  TYPES, 


APOSTROPHE. 


The  apostrophe  ( ' )  is  a  comma  cast  on  the  upper  end  of  a 
type,  and  signifies,  where  used,  the  contraction  or  abbrevia- 
tion of  a  word,  as  is  frequently  required  in  poetry  to  preserve 
the  proper  measure  of  a  line.  It  should  not  be  employed 
where  the  primitive  word  ends  with  e,  as  love^  change^  &c.,  but 
only  in  cases  where  the  priinitive  word  concludes  with  a  con- 
sonant, as,  reign,  obtain^  <fec.  Xt  also  marks  the  elision  of  a 
vowel  at  the  beginning  of  words,  as,  \Hcape,  or  of  a  syllable, 
as,  ^prentice. 

The  monosyllables  though  and  through  are  sometimes 
shortened  to  tho'  and  thro\  but  without  propriet3%  as  they 
retain  the  same  sound,  and  the  abbreviation  cannot  in  the 
slightest  degree  assist  the  versification. 

Words  in  the  possessive  case  are  generally  known  by  having 
's  for  their  termination. 

All  quotations  Avhich  are  denoted  at  the  beginning  by  in- 
verted commas  are  closed  with  apostrophes.  There  is  no 
space  required  between  the  apostrophe  and  the  matter. 

HYPHEN,  OR  DIVISION, 

To  divide  words  with  propriety  is  an  important  part  of  a 
compositor's  business.  It  will  exercise  his  judgment,  and 
demands  particular  attention,  as  authors  must  leave  the  use 
of  the  hyphen  to  the  discretion  of  the  printer. 

The  difficulty  that  formerly  existed  as  to  the  proper  method 
of  dividing  syllables  arose  from  the  controversies  in  which 
authors  were  continually  engaged  on  the  subject  of  ortho- 
graphy. Without  being  able  to  establish  a  criterion,  each 
adopted  his  own  particular  mode,  to  the  subversion  of  uni- 
formity and  propriety. 

A  compositor  who  studies  proj^riety  and  neatness  in  his 
work  will  not  suffer  an  unnecessary  division,  even  in  a  nar- 
row measure,  if  he  can  avoid  it  by  overrunning  two  or  three 
lines  of  matter.  In  large  type  and  narrow  measures,  the  use 
of  the  division  may  admit  of  an  excuse;  but,  in  that  case,  care 
should  be  taken  that  hyphens  do  not  follow  each  other.  In 
small  type  and  wide  measures,  the  hyphen  may  generally  ])e 
dispensed  witli,  either  hy  driving  out  or  getting  in  the  wc^'d. 


HYPHEN,  OR  DIVLSloy.  53 

without  the  least  infrmgement  on  the  reguhiritj^  of  the  spachig. 
The  compositor  who  is  careful  in  this  respect  will  find  his  ad- 
vantage in  the  preference  given  to  his  work,  and  in  the  respect 
attached  to  liis  character  as  a  competent  and  careful  master 
of  his  business.  Numerous  divisions  down  the  side  of  a  page 
and  irregular  spacing  are  the  two  greatest  defects  in  com- 
X30sition. 

It  is  proper,  if  possiljle,  to  keep  the  derivative  or  radical 
word  entire  and  undivided ;  as,  occuv-rence,  gentle-man^  respect- 
ful, <fec.  In  other  cases,  printers  generalh^  divide  on  the  vowel, 
which  is  an  excellent  method. 

The  hyphen  is  likewise  used  to  connect  compound  words, 
which  consist  frequently  of  two  substantives,  as,  bird-cagey 
love-letter^  tfcc. ;  likewise  what  are  termed  compound  adjec- 
tives, as,  well-built  house,  handsome-faced  child,  &c. 

The  ^^repositions  after^  before,  over,  &c.  are  often  connected 
with  other  words,  but  do  not  always  make  a  pro^Der  com- 
pound :  thus,  before-mentioned  is  a  compound  when  it  precedes 
a  substantive,  as,  in  the  before-mentioned  place ;  but  when  it 
comes  after  a  nomi,  as,  in  the  place  before  inentionedy  it  should 
be  two  distinct  words.  ■■ 

*  Wilson,  in  his  Treatise  on  English  Punctuation,  says,  very  judicionsly, — 

The  hyphoji  in  <'iiiiiliiy('(l  in   words  in  such  a  nianiii'V  as  is  licst  calcnlatf^l  to 

show  their  ori^iin.  cuinito.-itiun,  nr  iminnt.  ami  to  cxiiiliit  the  svlhiMo  in  tlieir 

neatest  form.     Agreeably  to  this  rule, — 

1.  Compound  and  derivative  words  are  resolved  into  their  primitives;  as,  school- 
master, hand-writing, pen-knife^  snuff-box,  looking-glass;  arch-angel,  geo-logy,  theo- 
cracy, ortho-graphy. 

2.  Prefixes,  affixes,  and  grammatieal  terminations,  are  separated;  as,  dis- 
c(mtinue,  en-able,  trans-port;  shear-er.  load-ed,  print-ing;  king-dom,  false-hood, 
differ-ence,  conimand-ment. 

3.  One  consonant  between  two  vowels  is  to  be  joined  to  the  latter  syllable; 
as,  ta-lent,  fa-tal ;  me-lon,  le-^^er;  spi-int,  si-lence;  cy-nic,  ty-ro;  le-ga-cy,  mo-no- 
po-ly.  Except  z,  and  single  consonants  when  they  belong  to  the  former  portion 
of  a  derivative  word;  as,  ex-iU.  ex-ist.  ex-amine;  up-on,  dis-ease,  circum-ambient. 

4.  Two  or  more  consonants  belong  to  the  latter  syllable,  when  they  are  capable 
of  beginning  a  word;  as,  ta-hk,  sii-Jlr,  hi-vrt\  o-i/h',  ntd/i-grr,  i^tro-phe,  destroy. 

5.  But  when  the  consonants  cannot  Ingin  a  word,  or  when  the  vowel  pre- 
ceding them  is  short,  the  first  should  be  >(jiaiat('d;  as,  ab-bey,  ac-cent,  vel-lum, 
ab-ject,  gar-den,  laun-dry,  pam-phlet ;  hh.i>^-]>h(iii( .  'lis-irrss,  min-strel. 

It  is  desirable  that  compound  and  (b'livativc  words  should,  at  the  ends  of 
lines,  be  divided  in  such  a  manner  as  to  indicate  their  piincipal  parts.  Thus, 
school-master  is  prefera))le  to  school  nut  s-ln\  dia-apjn-ore.  to  disap-prorf,  rescnt-ment 
to  resentment  ortho-doxy  to  or-tliodox;/ :  thoui;h.  as  regards  the  analysis  of  woids 


54  TYPES. 


PARENTHESIS  AND  BRACKET. 

The  use  of  the  Parenthesis  (  )  is  to  enclose  interpolated 
words  or  sentences  which  serve  to  strengthen  the  argument, 
though  the  main  sentence  would  read  correctly  were  the  en- 
closed matter  taken  away. 

Parentheses  are  not  now  so  generally  used  as  formerly: 
authors  place  their  intercalations  between  commas,  which 
make  them  quite  as  intelligible  as  though  they  were  en- 
closed between  parentheses,  and  look  much  neater  in  print ; 
but,  where  parentheses  are  used,  if  a  point  be  requisite,  it 
should  be  placed  after  the  parenthesis,  the  intercalation  not 
being  reckoned  any  part  of  that  sentence ;  as,  for  instance,  My 
lord  {said  I),  I  ivill  tell  your  lordship,  &c. 

Brackets  [  ]  are  seldom  made  use  of  now,  except  to  indicate 
an  omitted  word  inserted  to  make  sense  by  an  editor  who 
scruples  to  amend  some  rare  composition. 

REFERENCES. 

References  are  marks  and  signs  employed  to  direct  the 
reader  to  the  observations  which  are  made  in  notes  at  the 
bottom  of  a  jjage  upon  passages  of  the  text  to  which  they  are 
applied. 

into  syllables,  the  latter  mode  is  unobjectionable.  From  the  narrowness  of  the 
printed  line,  however,  in  some  books,  the  principle  recommended  cannot  always 
be  adhered  to. 

The  terminations  tim,  sion,  cial,  tial  and  many  others,  formerly  pronounced 
as  two  syllables,  but  now  only  as  one,  must  not  be  divided  either  in  spelling  or  at 
the  end  of  a  lino. 

A  syllable  consisting  of  only  one  letter,  as  the  a  in  cre-ation,  should  not  com- 
mence a  line.  This  word  would  be  better  divided  crea-tim  ;  and  so  all  others  of 
a  similar  kind.  But  such  a  syllable,  coming  immediately  after  a  primitive,  is  by 
some  pi'inters  brought  to  the  beginning ;  as,  consider-ahle.  , 

A  line  of  print  must  not  end  with  the  first  syllable  of  a  word  when  it  consists 
of  a  single  letter;  as,  a-bide,  e-normous;  nor  begin  with  the  last  syllable  when  it 
is  formed  of  only  two  letters;  as,  nation-al,  teach-er,  similar-ly.  For  regard  should 
be  had  to  the  principles  of  taste  and  beauty  as  well  as  to  the  laws  of  syllabication. 

Three  or  more  successive  lines  should  not  end  with  a  hyphen.  A  little  care 
on  the  part  of  the  compositor  will,  in  general,  prevent  an  appearance  so  offensive 
to  a  good  eye.  Divisions,  indeed,  except  for  purposes  of  spelling  and  lexico- 
graphy, should  take  place  as  seldom  as  possible. 


BEFEREXCES.  55 

References  used  in  works  witli  notes  are  variously  repre- 
sented, though  oftener  by  letters  than  other  characters.  The 
neatest  references,  however,  when  many  are  required,  are 
either  superior  letters  or  superior  figures, — thus,  i,  2,  3^  q^.  thus, 
%  ^,  <'.  Superior  letters  are  used  chiefly  in  Bibles  and  other 
books  which  have  more  than  one  sort  of  notes,  and  therefore 
require  various  references.  When  thus  used,  the  letter  J  should 
be  omitted,  as,  from  its  similarity  to  the  \  the  reader  miglit  at 
times  be  led  into  error. 

The  characters  technically  known  as  references  by  i^rinters 
are  the  following : — 

Asterisk  '^        1         Double  Dagger  J       I        Parallel        || 
Dagger     t        j        Section  ^       |        Paragraph  % 

The  Asterisk  is  the  chief  reference,  and  presents  itself  most 
readily  to  the  eye.  In  Roman  church-books,  the  Asterisk 
divides  each  verse  of  a  psalm  into  two  parts,  and  marks  where 
the  responses  begin,  which  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  is 
denoted  by  a  colon  i^laced  between  tlie  two  parts  of  each  verse. 
Asterisks  also  denote  an  omission,  or  an  hiatus  by  loss  of 
original  copy;  the  number  of  asterisks  being  multiplied  ac- 
cording to  the  largeness  of  the  chasm. 

The  Dagger,  originally  termed  the  Obelisk,  or  Long  Cross, 
is  frequently  used  in  Roman  Catholic  church-books,  prayers 
of  exorcism,  at  the  benediction  of  bread,  water,  and  fruit,  and 
upon  other  occasions,  where  the  priest  is  to  make  the  sign  of 
the  cross;  but  the  long  cross  is  not  used  unless  for  want  of 
square  crosses  ( )5B)»  which  are  the  proper  symbols  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  square  cross  is  used,  besides,  in  the  Pope's  briefs, 
and  in  mandates  of  archbishops  and  bishops,  who  put  it  im- 
mediately ])efore  the  signature  of  their  names ;  but  it  is  not 
reckoned  among  references. 

The  Paragraph  was  formerly  prefixed  to  such  matter  as 
authors  designed  to  distinguish  from  the  mean  contents  of 
their  works,  and  to  give  the  reader  an  item  of  some  particular 
subject.  At  present,  paragraphs  are  used  chiefly  in  Bibles,  to 
show  the  parts  into  which  a  chapter  is  divided.  In  Common 
Prayer  Books,  paragraphs  are  put  before  the  matter  that 
directs  the  order  of  the  Service,  and  which  is  called  the 
Rubi'ic  because  those  lines  were  formerly  printed  in  red. 


56 


TYPEK 


ACCENTED  LETTERS. 

Those  which  are  called  accented  by  printers  are  the  five 
vowels,  marked  thus : — 

Acute a  e  i  6  ti 

Grave a  o  i  o  u 

Circumtlex a  e  i  6  il 

Diaeresis a  e  i'  o  ii 

Long a  e  1  6  u 

Short it  e  1  o  u 

We  may  include  the  French  5,  the  Spanish  n,  the  Portu- 
guese o  or  e,  and  the  Welsh  w  and  f. 


NUMERAL  LETTERS, 

The  Greeks  at  first  employed  the  letters  of  the  entire 
alphabet  to  express  the  lirst  twenty-four  numbers;  but  the 
system  was  cumbrous,  and  they  adopted  the  happy  expedient 
of  dividing  their  alphabet  into  three  portions,  using  the  first  to 
symbolize  the  9  digits,  the  second  the  9  tens,  and  the  third  the 
9  hundreds;  and,  as  their  alphabet  contained  only  twenty- 
four  letters,  they  invented  three  additional  symbols.  Their 
list  of  symbols  then  stood  as  folloAvs ; — 


I 


Tens. 


.  1 
.  2 

4   I 

.  5   i 


t  represents.. 


i  s-  (introduced).. 
I  C 


7   I    o. 


»7 

0or.9-.. 


5  or  A    (introduced)  90 


Hundreds. 


p  represents  100 

o- 200 

T 300 

V 400 

<|) 500 

X 600 

\ii 700 

ui  800 

-5,   A,  7^  (introd'd)  900 


By  these  symbols,  only  numbers  under  1000  could  be  ex- 
pressed ;  but,  by  putting  a  mark  called  iota  under  any  symbol, 
its  value  was  increased  a  thousand-fold :  thus,  a  =  1000,  li  = 
20,000 ;  or,  by  subscribing  the  letter  M,  the  value  of  a  symbol 
was  raised  ten  thousand-fold.  For  these  two  marks,  single 
and  double  dots  were  afterward  substituted.     This  improve- 


XUMERAL  LETTERS.  57 

inent  enabled  them  to  exj^ress  with  facility  all  numbers  as 
high  as  9,990,000, — a  range  amply  sufficient  for  all  ordinary 
purposes. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  the  Romans  used  M  to  denote 
1000,  because  it  is  the  first  letter  of  Mille,  which  is  Latin  for 
1000;  and  C  to  denote  100,  it  being  the  first  letter  of  Centum, 
the  Latin  term  for  100.  Some  also  suppose  that  D,  being 
formed  by  dividing  the  old  M  in  the  middle,  w^as  therefore 
appointed  to  stand  for  500, — that  is,  half  as  much  as  the  M 
stood  for  when  it  was  whole;  and  that  L  being  half  a  C,  was, 
for  the  same  reason,  used  to  denominate  50.  But  the  most 
natural  account  of  the  matter  appears  to  be  this : — 

The  Romans  probably  put  down  a  single  stroke,  I,  for  one, 
as  is  still  the  practice  of  those  who  score  on  a  slate,  or  with 
chalk;  this  stroke  they  doubled,  trebled,  and  quadrupled,  to 
exi:)ress  two,  three,  and  four;  thus,  I  i,  i  i  I,  1 1  i  I.  So  lar  they 
could  easily  number  the  minums  or  strokes  with  a  glance  of 
the  eye ;  but  they  found  that  if  more  were  added  it  would  be 
necessary  to  number  the  strokes  one  by  one:  for  this  reason, 
when  they  came  to  five,  they  expressed  it  by  joining  two 
strokes  together  in  an  acute  angle,  thus,  V,  which  will  appear 
the  more  probable  if  it  be  considered  that  the  progression  of 
the  Roman  numbers  is  from  five  to  five,— that  is,  from  the 
fingers  of  one  hand  to  the  fingers  of  the  other. 

After  they  had  made  this  acute  angle,  V,  for  five,  they  then 
added  single  strokes  to  the  number  of  four,  thus,  VI,  VII, 
VIM,  Villi,  and  then,  as  the  minums  could  not  be  further 
multiplied  without  confusion,  tlicy  doubled  tlicir  acute  angle 
by  prolonging  the  two  lines  beyond  their  intersection,  thus, 
X,  to  denote  two  fives,  or  ten.  After  they  had  doubled,  trebled, 
and  quadrupled  this  double  acute  angle,  thus,  XX,  XXX, 
XXXX,  they  then,  for  the  same  reason  which  induced  them 
t )  make  a  single  angle  first,  and  then  to  double  it,  joined  two 
single  strokes  in  another  form,  and,  instead  of  an  acute  angle, 
made  a  right  angle,  L,  to  denote  fifty.  When  this  was  doubled, 
they  then  doubled  the  right  angle,  thus,  C,  to  denote  one  hun- 
dred, and,  having  numbered  this  double  right  angle  four 
times,  thus,  EC,  C  C  C,  C  C  C  C,  when  they  came  to  the  fifth 
number,  as  before,  they  reverted  it,  and  put  a  single  stroke 
before  it,  thus,  ID,  to  denote  five  hundred;  and,  when  this 
five  hundred  was  doul)led,  then  they  also  doubled  their  double 
right  angle,  setting  two  double  right  angles  opposite  to  each 


58  TYPE^. 

other,  with  a  single  stroke  between  them,  thus,  C I D,  to  denote 
one  thousand ;  when  this  note  for  one  thousand  had  been  re- 
peated four  times,  they  then  put  down  I  Zl  1  for  five  thousand, 
C  C  I  I]  13  for  ten  thousand,  and  I  D  3 13  for  fifty  thousand. 

The  corners  of  the  angles  being  cut  off  by  transcribers  for 
despatch,  these  figures  were  gradually  brought  into  what  are 
now  called  numerical  letters.  When  the  corners  of  C  I  H  were 
made  round,  it  stood  thus,  CIO,  which  is  so  near  the  Gothic 
C)  that  it  soon  deviated  into  that  character ;  so  that  I  H  having 
the  corners  made  round,  stood  thus,  I O ,  and  then  easily  de- 
viated into  D.  C  also  became  a  plain  C  by  the  same  means : 
the  single  rectangle,  which  denoted  fifty,  was,  without  any 
alteration,  a  capital  L ;  the  double  acute  angle  was  an  X ;  the 
single  acute  angle,  a  Y  consonant ;  and  a  plain  single  stroke, 
the  letter  I.  And  thus  these  seven  letters,  M,  D,  C,  L,  X,  V,  I 
became  numerals.  As  a  further  proof  of  this  assertion,  let  it 
be  considered  that  CIO  is  still  used  for  one  thousand,  and 
I O  for  five  hundred,  instead  of  M  and  D ;  and  this  mark,  C),  is 
sometimes  used  to  denote  one  thousand,  which  may  easily  be 
derived  from  this  figure,  CID,  but  cannot  be  deviations  from, 
m*  corruptions  of,  the  Roman  letter  M.  The  Romans  also  ex- 
pressed any  number  of  thousands  by  a  line  drawn  over  any 
numeral  less  than  one  thousand :  thus,  V  denotes  five  thou- 
sand, LX  sixty  thousand;  so,  likewise,  M  is  one  million, 
MM  two  millions,  &c. 

Upon  the  discovery  of  printing,  and  before  capitals  were 
invented,  small  letters  served  for  numerals;  not  only  when 
Gothic  characters  were  in  vogue,  but  when  Roman  had  become 
the  prevailing  character.  Thus,  in  early  times,  t  i  x  I  t  Jj  m 
were,  and  in  Roman  type  are  still,  of  the  same  signification  as 
capitals  when  used  as  numerals.  Though  the  capital  J  is  not 
a  numeral  letter,  yet  the  lower-case  j  is  as  often  and  as  sig- 
nificantly used  as  the  vowel  i,  especially  where  the  former  is 
employed  as  a  closing  letter,  in  if  iij  bj  iif  biij  Irtij,  &c.  In 
Roman  lower-case  numerals,  the  j  is  not  regarded,  but  the  i 
stands  for  figure  1  wherever  it  is  used  numerically. 

During  the  existence  of  the  French  Republic,  books  were 
dated  in  France  from  the  first  year  of  the  Republic:  thus, 
Ann.  XII.  (1803),  or  twelve  years  from  1792. 


FIG  URE>S~FRA  CTION>S.  59 


ARITHMETICAL  FIGURES, 

The  arithmetical  or  Arabic  numerals  are  0,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6, 
7,  8,  9.  Properly  they  should  be  styled  Hindu  or  Indian 
numerals;  for  the  Arabs  borrowed  them,  along  with  the 
decimal  system  of  notation,  from  the  Hindus.  They  were 
probably  first  introduced  from  the  East  into  Italy  about  1202; 
yet  they  did  not  come  into  general  use  before  the  invention 
of  printing.  Accounts  were  kept  in  Roman  numerals  up  to 
the  sixteenth  century. 

OLD  STYLE  FIGURES. 

Though  uniform  in  height  and  appearance,  we  do  not  deem 
the  modern  figures  an  improvement  on  the  variously-lining 
figures  formerly  in  vogue,  and  now  happily  coming  again 
into  use.  The  latter  can  be  caught  by  the  eye  with  greater 
ease  and  certainty,  just  as  lower-case  letter  can  be  read  with 
more  facility  than  continuous  lines  of  capitals.  In  the  new 
style  the  3  and  8  may  easily  be  mistaken  for  each  other,  and 
so  with  the  6,  9,  and  0;  but  in  the  non-lining  figures  such 
errors  are  quite  unlikely  to  happen,  as  some  of  them  occupy 
the  centre  of  the  body  only,  and  others  are  ascending  or  de- 
scending characters.  The  example  here  given  will  show  the 
justice  of  our  remarks : 

1234567890 

1  2  8  4  5  G  7  8  9  0 

SCRATCHED  OR  CANCELLED  FIGURES 

I  2  ^  i  ^ 

Are  used  in  arithmetical  matter  when  the  divided  and 
dividing  figures  require  to  be  crossed  over  in  an  operation. 

FRACTIONS. 

Common  Fractions,  or  broken  numbers  in  arithmetic,  are 
cast  to  all  sizes  of  type  solid.  A  great  improvement  has  re- 
cently been  introduced  by  casting  the  numerator  and  denomi- 
nator separately,  on  bodies  of  half  size,  wath  the  line  on  the 
under  figure,  so  that  odd  fractions  of  any  amount  may  be 
easilv  formed. 


60  TYPEK 

SIGNS. 

COMMERCIAL   SIGNS. 


3- 

.  Per,  each. 

$   . 

..  Dollar  or  dollars. 

@. 

.  At  or  to. 

£  . 

..  Libra,  lihrw,  pound  or 

%■ 

..Per  centum. 

pounds  sterling. 

%■ 

..  account. 

/     . 

..  Solidiis,  solidi,  shilling 

/  • 

.  cent. 

or  shillings. 

MATHEMATICAL,  ALGEBRAICAL,  AND  GEOMETRICAL. 

-f  plus,  or  more,  is  the  sign  of  real  existence  of  the  quantity 
it  stands  before,  and  is  called  an  affirmative  or  positive  sign. 
It  is  also  the  mark  of  addition :  thus,  a  +  6,  or  6  +  9,  implies 
that  a  is  to  be  added  to  h,  or  6  added  to  9. 

—  Tninus,  or  less,  before  a  single  quantity,  is  the  sign  of  nega- 
tion, or  negative  existence,  showing  the  quantity  to  which  it  is 
prefixed  to  be  less  than  nothing.  But  between  quantities  it  is 
the  sign  of  subtraction ;  thus,  a  —  b,  or  8  —  4,  implies  b  sub- 
tracted from  a,  or  8  after  4  has  been  subtracted. 

=  equal.  The  sign  of  equality,  though  Des  Cartes  and  some 
others  use  this  mark,  oo :  thus,  a=b  signifies  that  a  is  equal 
to  6.  Wolfius  and  some  others  use  the  mark  =  to  denote  the 
identity  of  ratios. 

X  into  or  with.  The  sign  of  multiplication,  showing  that  the 
quantities  on  each  side  the  same  are  to  be  multiplied  by  one 
another :  as,  a  x  ^  is  to  be  read,  a  multiplied  into  b;  4x8,  the 
product  of  4  multiplied  into  8.  Wolfius  and  others  make  the 
sign  of  multiplication  a  dot  between  the  two  factors:  thus, 
7 . 4  signifies  the  product  of  7  and  4.  In  algebra  the  sign  is 
commonly  omitted,  and  the  two  quantities  put  together :  thus, 
bd  expresses  the  product  of  b  and  d.  When  one  or  both  of  the 
factors  are  compounded  of  several  letters,  they  are  distin- 
guished by  a  line  drawn  over  them :  thus,  the  factum  of  a  +  6 
—  c  into  d  is  written,  d  x  a  +  b  —  c.  Leibnitz,  Wolfius,  and 
others  distinguished  the  compound  factors  by  including  them 
in  a  parenthesis :  thus,  (a  +  6  —  c)  d. 

^  by.  The  sign  of  division :  thus,  a-^b  denotes  the  quantity 
a  to  be  divided  by  b.  Wolfius  makes  the  sign  of  division  two 
dots ;  12  :  4  denotes  the  quotient  of  12  divided  by  4  =  3.  If 
either  the  divisor,  or  dividend,  or  both,  be  composed  of  several 


^sigNjS.  61 

letters,  for  example,  a ..  b  ^  c,  instead  of  writing  the  quotient 
like  a  fraction. 

7  or  \z~  are  signs  of  majority :  thus,  ay  b  expresses  that  a  is 
greater  than  b. 

^  or  ^  are  signs  of  minority, — when  we  would  denote  that 
a  is  less  than  b. 

xfi  is  the  character  of  similitude  used  by  Wolfius,  Leibnitz, 
and  others.  It  is  used  in  other  authors  for  the  difference 
between  two  quantities  when  it  is  unknown  which  is  the 
greater  of  the  two. 

; :  so  is.  The  mark  of  geometrical  proportion  disjunct,  and  is 
usually  placed  between  two  pair  of  equal  ratios :  as,  3  :  6  : :  4 :  8 
shows  that  3  is  to  6  as  4  is  to  8. 

;  or  .'.  is  an  arithmetical  equal  proportion :  as,  7  .  3  :  13 .  9 ; 
i.e.  7  is  more  than  3,  as  13  is  more  than  9. 

D  quadrate,  or-  regular  quadrangle, — viz.  D  AB  =  D  BC  ; 
i.e.  the  quadrangle  upon  the  line  AB  is  equal  to  the  quadrangle 
upon  the  line  BC. 

A  triangle :  as,  A  ABC  =  A  ADC. 

Z  an  angle :  as,  z  ABC  =  Z  ADC. 

JL  perpendicular ;  as,  AB  _l  BC. 

□  rectangled  parallelogram,  or  the  product  of  two  lines. 

II   the  character  of  parallelism. 

+  want  of  parallelism. 

y=  equiangular,  or  similar. 

i  equilateral. 

/Z7  rhomboid. 

^  concentric. 

O  circle. 

L   right  angle. 

°  denotes  a  degree :  thus,  45°  implies  45  degrees. 

'  a  minute :  thus,  50'  is  50  minutes ;  ", '",  "",  denote  seconds, 
thirds,  and  fourths;  and  the  same  characters  are  used  where 
the  progressions  are  by  tens,  as  it  is  here  by  sixties. 

^  the  mark  of  geometrical  proportion  continued,  implies 
the  ratio  to  be  still  carried  on  without  interruption :  as,  2,  4,  8, 
16,  32,  64  ^  are  in  the  same  uninterrupted  proportion. 

l/  irrationality.  The  character  of  a  surd  root,  and  shows, 
according  to  the  index  of  the  power  that  is  set  over  it  or  after 
it,  that  the  square,  cube,  or  other  root  is  extracted,  or  to  be  ex- 

6 


62 


TYPES. 


tracted:  thUvS,  j/16,  or  y -^16,  or  y  (2)16,  is  the  square  root  of  16; 
]f  25  the  cube  root  of  25,  &c. 

^  dilierence  equal.  * 

— :  the  ditference,  or  excess. 

Q  or  q,  a  square. 

C  or  c,  a  cube. 

QQ,,  the  latio  of  a  square  number  to  a  square  number. 

In  algebraical  works,  authors  should  be  very  exact  in  their 
copy,  and  compositors  as  careful  in  following  it,  so  that  no 
alterations  may  be  necessary  after  it  is  composed ;  as  changing 
and  altering  work  of  this  nature  is  very  troublesome  to  the 
compositor.  Hence  very  few  compositors  are  fond  of  algebra, 
and  rather  choose  to  be  employed  upon  plain  work,  though 
loss  profitable  to  them  than  the  former. 


CELESTIAL*  AND  ASTRONOMICAL  SIGNS. 


The  Twelve  Signs  of  the  Zodiac. 


<^  Aries, 
y  Taurus, 
n  Gemini. 
T2  Cancer. 


a  Leo. 
np  Virgo. 
£b  Libra, 
ni  Scorpio. 


^  Sagittarius. 
1^  Capricornus. 
t^  Aquarius. 
^  Pisces. 


The  Sun  and  Planets. 

©  Sun.  ©  Earth.  \i  Saturn. 

$  Mercury.  d  Mars.  §  Uranus. 

9  Venus.  '^  Jupiter.  tjr  Neptune. 

Ceres,  Pallas,  Juno,  Vesta,  Astrsea,  Hebe,  Iris,  and  all  the 
other  asteroids,  are  now  commonly  designated  by  a  circle  O 
enclosing  a  number  which  indicates  the  order  of  their  dis- 
covery. 

Seven  of  the  Planets  sometimes  imply  the  seven  days  of  the  week. 

Dies  Solis — Sunday.  Dies  Mer cur ii — Wednesday. 

Dies  Lunce— Monday.  Dies  Jovis — Thursday. 

IHes  Martis — Tuesday.  Dies  Veneris — Friday. 

Dies  Saturni — Saturday. 
Q  The  Dragon's  Head,  or  ascending  node,  and 
y  The  Dragon's  Tail,  or  descending  node,  are  the  two  points 
in  which  the  eclipses  happen. 


.siGXK  63 

Aspects  of  the  Planets. 

(5  Conjunction;  happens  when  two  planets  stand  under 
each  other  in  the  same  sign  and  degree. 

S  Opposition ;  happens  when  two  planets  stand  diametri- 
cally 0]3posite  each  other. 

A  Trigonus ;  happens  Avhen  one  planet  stands  from  another 
four  signs,  or  120  degrees;  which  make  one-third  of  the 
ecliptic. 

D  Quadrile;  happens  when  two  planets  stand  three  signs 
from  each  other,  which  make  90  degrees,  or  the  fourth  part  of 
the  ecliptic. 

*  Sextile ;  is  the  sixth  part  of  the  ecliptic,  which  is  two 
signs,  and  make  60  degrees. 

Lunar  Signs. 
®  New  Moon.  i  ©  Full  Moon. 

D  First  Quarter.  |  d  Last  Quarter. 

Many  signs  and  s^nnbols  have  been  invented  by  astro- 
nomers to  impose  upon  the  credulity  of  the  ignorant;  among 
which  are  signs  which  give  notice  on  what  day  it  is  proper  to 
let  blood,  to  bathe  and  to  cup,  to  sow  and  to  plant,  to  take  physic, 
to  have  one's  hair  cut,  to  cut  one's  nails,  to  wean  cliildren,  and 
many  other  absurdities  ;  as  well  as  symbols  that  serve  to  indi- 
cate hail,  thunder,  lightning,  or  any  occult  phenomena. 

MEDICAL  SIGNS   AND  ABBREVIATIONS, 

p;  stands  for  Recipe,  or  Take. 
a,  a  a,  of  each  a  like  quantity, 
lb  a  pound, 
g  an  ounce. 
5  a  drachm. 
3  a  scrui)le. 

j  stands  for  1 ;  ij  for  2  ;  and  so  on. 
ss.  signifies  senii,  or  half, 
gr.  denotes  a  grain. 

P.  stands  for  particuJa,  a  little  part,  and  means  so  much  as 
can  be  taken  between  the  ends  of  two  fingers. 
P.  seq.  stands  for  partes  cequales,  or  equal  parts, 
q.  s.  quantum  sujfflcit,  or  as  much  as  is  sufficient, 
q.  p.  quantum  placit,  or  as  much  as  you  please. 
s.  a.  secundem  artem,  or  according  to  art. 


64  TYPES. 


METAL  RULES  OR  DASHES. 

Metal  Rules  or  dashes,  like  quadrates,  are  commonly 
cast  from  an  em  to  three  ems  in  length.    When  cast  to  line 
.  and  join  accurately,  they  may  serve  instead  of  brass  rule. 

BRACES. 

Braces  are  chiefly  used  in  tables  of  accounts,  botanical  and 
geological  tables,  and  similar  matter.  They  stand  before  and 
keep  together  items  of  similar  import,  or  subdivisions  of  the 
preceding  article.  They  sometimes  stand  after  and  keep  to- 
gether such  articles  as  make  more  than  one  line,  and  have 
either  pecuniary,  mercantile,  or  other  posts  after  them,  which 
are  justified  to  answer  to  the  middle  of  the  brace.  Braces  are 
sometimes  used  horizontally  in  the  margin,  to  cut  off  a  chro- 
nological or  other  series  from  the  proper  notes  or  marginal 
references  of  the  work. 

Braces  are  generally  cast  to  two,  three,  and  four  ems  of 
each  fount.  Middles  and  ends  are  also  cast,  which  can  be 
filled  out  with  dashes  to  any  length  required  for  the  brace. 

Middles  and  ends  are  convenient  in  genealogical  works, 
where  they  are  used  the  flat  way,  and  where  the  directing 
point  is  not  always  in  the  middle,  but  has  its  place  under  the 
name  of  the  parent,  whose  ofl*spring  stands  between  corner 
and  corner  of  the  brace  inside,  in  order  of  primogeniture. 

Brass  braces  of  any  length,  for  music  and  jobbing  purposes, 
are  furnished  by  type-founders. 

SPACES. 

Spaces  are  short  blank  types,  and  are  used  to  separate  one 
word  from  another.  To  enable  the  compositor  to  space  even 
and  to  justify  with  nicety,  they  are  cast  to  various  thicknesses, 
— viz.  five  to  an  em,  or  five  thin  spaces ;  four  to  an  em,  or  four 
middle  spaces ;  three  to  an  em,  or  three  thick  spaces ;  and  two 
to  an  em,  or  two  en  quadrates,  which  may  with  propriety  be 
reckoned  among  the  number  of  spaces.  Besides  these,  there 
is  what  is  called  the  hair-space,  cast  remarkably  thin,  and 
found  particularly  useful  in  justifying  lines  and  assisting 
uniformity  in  spacing. 


Q  UADRA  TE^—il  UO TA  TIOX>S.  65 


TWO-LINE  LETTERS 

ARE  equal  in  depth  to  two  lines  of  the  type  in  which  they 
are  to  be  used,  and  of  proportionate  width.  They  form 
the  almost  only  proper  tyi)e  for  title-pages,  and  are  used  at 
the  beginning  of  chapters  and  newspaper  advertisements. 

QUADRATES. 

An  em  quadrate  is  a  short  blank  type,  in  thickness  equal 
to  the  square  of  the  letter  of  the  fount  to  which  it  belongs ;  an 
en  quadrate  is  half  that  size.  In  casting  em  and  en  quadrates, 
the  utmost  exactness  is  necessary ;  they  also  require  particular 
care  in  dressing,  as  the  most  trilling  variation  will  instantly 
be  discovered  when  they  are  ranged  in  fminv-work,  and,  un- 
less true  in  their  justification,  the  arrangi-nient  will  be  so 
irregular  that  all  the  pains  and  ingenuity  of  a  compositor 
cannot  rectify  it.  The  same  observation  will  hold  good  with 
resjject  to  figures. 

The  first  line  of  a  paragraph  is  usually  indented  an  em 
quadrate ;  but  some  printers  prefer  using  an  em  and  en,  two, 
or  even  three  ems  for  wide  measures.  An  em  quadrate  is  the 
proper  space  after  a  full-point  when  it  terminates  a  sentence  in 
a  paragraph. 

En  quadrates  are  generally  used  after  the  semicolon,  colon, 
(fee,  and  sometimes  after  an  overhanging  letter.  They  are 
useful  in  spacing. 

The  inconvenience  arising  from  founts  of  the  same  body  not 
agreeing  in  depth  is  great,  where  the  quadrates,  through  neces- 
sit3%  are  sometimes  mixed.  The  founts  cast  by  L.  Johnson 
<k  Company  are  not  liable  to  this  charge,  as  their  moulds  for 
all  regular  type  of  a  specific  size  harmonize  perfectly,  and  the 
quadrates  and  spaces  work  together. 

QUOTATIONS. 

Quotations  are  cast  to  two  sizes,  and  are  called  broad  and 
narrow.  They  vary  in  size  according  to  the  standard  of  the 
foundry  where  they  are  cast.  They  are  being  superseded, 
however,  by 

6* 


66 


TYPES. 


LABOUR-SAVING  QUOTATION  FURNITURE. 


4  X  16  ems. 


This  is  cast  with  great  accuracy  to  Pica,  of  assorted  widths 
and  lengths ;  and,  as  its  name  imports,  it  serves  not  only  for 
quotations  in  general  job-work,  but  also  for  furniture:  not 
being  liable  to  warp  or  shrink,  it  forms  a  highly  economical 
substitute  for  wooden  reglet. 


Answer  many  of  the  purposes  of  quotations,  but  are  prin- 
cipally useful  as  frames  or  miniature  chases  for  circular  or  oval 
jobs.     They  are  cast  of  various  sizes,  graduated  to  Pica  ems. 


CIRCULAR  QUADRATES. 


67 


H     SELF-MOVING,     ■■7^|| 
SELF-STEERING,    ^K^M 
VELOCIPEDE.       Wm 


CIRCULAR   QUADRATES, 

These  are  made  of  various  sizes,  so  as  to  form  circles  or 
parts  of  circles  from  one  to  twenty-four  inches  in  diameter. 
Each  piece  is  exactly  one-eighth  of  a  full  circle,  and,  when 
combined  with  similar  pieces,  will  form  quaiter,  Jialf,  three- 
quarter,  and  full  circles.  By  reversing  the  coml)! nation  of 
some  of  the  pieces,  serpentine  and  eccentric  curves  may  be 
made  of  any  length  or  depth. 

There  are  two  kinds :  inner  quadrates^  with  convex  surface, 
and  outer  quadrates^  with  concave  surface.  The  curved  line  is 
produced  by  placing  the  convex  and  concave  surfaces  parallel 
to  each  other,  so  that  when  locked  up  lirmly  they  hold  the 
type  inserted  between  them.  The  other  sides  of  the  quadratts 
are  flat  and  right-angled,  to  allow  a  close  introduction  of  typo, 
and  an  easy  justification  with  common  quadrates. 

DIRECTIONS   FOR  COMPO.SINii   CIRCULAR  QUADRATES   FOR  THE 
ORDINARY   SIZE   OF  ONE-FOURTH   CIRCLE. 

Select  two  outer  quadrates  (each  marked  with  the  same 
number)  of  tlie  length  required.     Join  the  smaller  ends,  and 


68  TYPES. 

justify  the  extremities  carefully  with  ordinary  quadrates. 
Set  the  line  of  type  in  the  hollow  of  the  curve,  but  Avithout 
justification.  Then  insert  two  inner  quadrates  (of  the  same 
number)  of  smaller  size  than  the  outer  quadrates.  The  size 
of  the  inner  quadrates  will  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  type. 
A  line  of  Canon  will  require  smaller  inner  quadrates  than 
Avill  be  needed  for  a  line  of  Pica,  and  vice  versd.  As  the  one 
increases,  the  other  diminishes.  An  ordinary  clock -dial  will 
afford  a  good  illustration.  The  space  between  the  numerals 
X  and  I  is  one-fourth  of  a  circle.  The  curved  line  described 
around  the  foot  of  these  numerals  is  much  less  than  the  curve 
at  the  top.  If  the  size  of  the  numerals  from  X  to  I  is  de- 
creased, the  inner  curve  will  be  greater;  if  it  is  increased,  it 
will  be  less.  This  will  explain  why  the  iiiner  quadrate  should 
be  of  less  size  than  the  outer,  and  why  it  should  diminish  as 
the  size  of  the  type  increases.  The  curve  of  the  inner  quad- 
rate should  be  perfectly  parallel  with  the  curve  of  the  outer 
quadrate.  When  they  are  parallel,  they  bind  the  type  between 
firmly  in  every  part.     Then  justify  the  line  of  type. 

As  the  sizes  of  type  vary  with  different  foundries,  it  will 
often  be  found  that  the  inner  quadrate  of  the  nearest  suitable 
size  will  not  meet  the  type  in  every  part.  This  difficulty  may 
be  obviated  by  introducing  slips  of  card  of  the  same  length  as 
the  line  of  type.  Thus  increase  the  distance  between  the  quad  • 
rates  until  the  curved  surfaces  are  perfectly  parallel  with  each 
other.  The  line  of  type  cannot  be  justified  unless  they  are 
parallel.  When  the  inner  and  outer  quadrates  are  thus 
adapted  to  each  other,  they  will  not  only  bind  the  type  firmly, 
but  will  also  present  a  perfectly  flat  and  square  surface  on  the 
other  side.  Unless  they  are  parallel  on  the  inner  sides,  and 
flat  and  square  on  the  outer  sides,  the  justification  is  not  good; 
and  the  remedy  must  be  found  in  changing  tlie  size  of  the 
inner  circle,  or  in  increasing  the  distance  between  the  curved 
lines  by  the  use  of  larger  type  or  by  paper  or  card  board. 
When  thus  composed,  the  type  will  be  perfectly  tight  and 
secure,  and  the  curved  white  line  strictly  accurate. 

As  these  quadrates  are  perfect  segments  of  a  large  circle, 
they  cannot  be  increased  or  diminished  without  destroying 
the  truth  of  the  curve.  If  the  thin  ends  are  pieced  out  with 
common  quadrates,  good  justification  will  be  rendered  im- 
possible ;  if  they  are  shortened  by  cutting  off,  they  are  ruined. 
Bits  of  lead  or  short  pieces  of  card  between  the  curved  siir- 


LEADS— BRAUSS  li  ULES,  69 

faces  are  also  wrong:  they  destroy  that  exact  parallelism 
which  is  necessary  for  the  security  of  the  type.  Very  accu- 
rate justification  of  the  outer  extremities  of  the  quadrates  is 
also  indispensable.  If  the  curved  surfaces  are  kept  parallel, 
and  the  flat  surfaces  kept  square,  no  difficulty  will  be  found 
in  using  them,  and  they  will  prove  a  valuable  aid  in  orna- 
mental printing. 

LEADS. 

Leads  form  a  very  important  part  of  a  printer's  stock  in 
trade,  since  it  is  scarcely  j^ossible  to  set  up  a  single  page  in 
which  they  may  not  be  usefully  employed ;  but  their  chief  use 
is  for  opening  the  lines  to  a  regular  distance  from  each  other. 
They  are  usually  cast  by  letter-founders  in  a  long  mould,  and 
then  cut  to  the  required  lengths.  The  bodies  are  regulated  by 
Pica  standard,  and  they  are  usually  cast  four,  six,  or  eight  to 
Pica,  but  are  occasionally  varied  from  one  down  to  fourteen  to 
Pica.  The  lengths  also  vary, — twenty  ems  Pica  being  about 
the  average;  though  they  are  cut  to  almost  every  length,  in 
order  that,  by  being  combined,  they  may  suit  every  measure. 

FLOWERS  AND  BORDERS. 

The  flowers  and  borders  designed  and  cast  at  the  present 
time  far  surpass  any  made  by  founders  of  earlier  days.  Their 
richness  and  variety  enable  printers  to  execute  delicate  and 
elaborate  work  rivalling  plate  engraving,  and  afford  a  wide 
scope  for  the  display  of  taste  and  artistic  skill.  The  combina- 
tion borders  are  especially  valuable  from  being  cast  on  uniform 
bodies,  thus  rendering  them  susceptible  of  a  vast  number  of 
changes. 

The  ancient  practice  of  ornamenting  pages  with  head  and 
tail  pieces  of  flowers  seems  to  be  coming  in  vogue  again,  par- 
ticularly in  works  printed  with  old-style  type,  such  as  was 
used  a  century  ago. 

BRASS  RULES, 

RuL.ES  are  required  mainly  for  table-work,  and  for  pages 
which  contain  two  or  more  columns.  They  are  also  useful  in 
titles  and  jobs.  Brass  rule  should  never  be  more  than  type 
height,   unloss  for  perforating   purposes,   to  divide   railroad 


70  LABOUR-SAVING  RULE. 

checks,  &c.  A  shade  lower  would  be  often  better,  as  the 
pressman  would  be  enabled  to  bring  otf  their  impression 
more  clearly.  In  table-work,  the  rule  and  figures  should  be 
separated  b}^  a  lead,  and  all  the  rules  should  fit  closely  and 
accurately. 

The  lately-invented 

BRASS  LABOUR-SAVING  RULE 


is  of  immense  economical  advantage  to  the  printer.  Being 
cut  to  a  graduated  scale,  from  one  em  to  fifty  ems  Pica  in 
length,  advancing  in  the  shorter  pieces  by  ens  and  in  the 
longer  hy  ems,  all  wastage  in  cutting  is  avoided  by  the  printer, 
as  rules  of  any  length  can  be  formed  by  employing  two  oi* 
more  pieces.  They  are  put  up  in  regular  founts,  of  various 
styles,  with  sufficient  mitred  pieces  for  outside  bordering. 

Metal  space-rules,  cast  by  type-founders,  are  commonly 
used  for  cross-rules  in  table-work ;  but  the  shorter  pieces  of 
labour-saving  rule  will  answer  as  well. 

On  the  next  page  we  insert  a  plan  of  a  case  for  labour- 
saving  rules,  with  boxes  suited  for  the  various  sizes,  in  which 
the  rule  should  be  kept  when  not  in  use. 


LA  BO  UBS  A  VING  B  ULE. 


71 


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72  RUNIC. 


RUNIC  ALPHABETS. 


Runes  were  the  earliest  alphabets  in  use  among  the  Teu- 
tonic and  Gothic  nations  of  Northern  Europe.  The  exact 
period  of  their  origin  is  not  known.  The  name  is  derived 
from  the  Teutonic  r'dn,  a  mystery;  whence  runa,  a  whisper, 
and  helrnln,  divination ;  and  the  original  use  of  these  charac- 
ters seems  to  have  been  for  purposes  of  secrecy  and  divination. 
Scandinavian  and  Anglo-Saxon  tradition  agree  in  ascribing 
the  invention  of  runic  writing  to  Odin  or  Wodin.  The  coun- 
tries in  which  traces  of  the  use  of  runes  exist  include  Den- 
mark, Norway,  Sweden,  Iceland,  Germany,  Britain,  France, 
and  Spain ;  and  they  are  found  engraved  on  rocks,  crosses, 
monumental  stones,  coins,  medals,  rings,  brooches,  and  the 
hilts  and  blades  of  swords.  Runic  letters  were  also  often  cut 
on  smooth  sticks  called  riln-stafas,  or  mysterious  staves,  and 
used  for  purposes  of  divination.  But  there  is  no  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  they  were  at  any  time  in  the  familiar  use  in  which 
we  find  the  characters  of  a  written  language  in  modern  times, 
nor  have  we  any  traces  of  their  being  used  in  books  or  on 
parchment.  We  have  an  explanation  of  the  runic  alphabet  in 
various  MSS.  of  the  early  middle  ages,  prior  to  the  time  when 
runes  had  altogether  ceased  to  be  understood. 

The  systems  of  runes  in  use  among  the  different  branches 
of  the  Teutonic  stock  were  not  identical,  though  they  have  a 
strong  general  family  likeness,  showing  their  community  of 
origin.  Tlie  letters  are  arranged  in  an  order  altogether  dis- 
tinct from  that  of  any  other  alphabetical  system,  and  have 
a  purely  Teutonic  nomenclature.  Each  letter  is,  as  in  the 
Hebrew-Phoenician,  derived  from  the  name  of  some  well- 
known  familiar  object,  with  whose  initial  letter  it  corresponds. 
Runes,  being  associated  in  the  popular  belief  with  augury  and 
divination,  were  to  a  considerable  extent  discouraged  by  the 
early  Christian  priests  and  missionaries,  whose  etforts  were 
directed  to  the  supplanting  of  them  by  Greek  and  Roman 
characters.  But  it  was  not  easy  suddenly  to  put  a  stop  to 
their  use,  and  we  find  runes  continuing  to  be  employed  in 
early  Christian  inscriptions.  This  was  to  a  remarkable  extent 
the  case  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms  of  Northumbria,  Mer- 
cia,  and  East  Anglia,  where  wo  have  traces  of  runic  writing 
of  dates  varying  from  the  middle  of  the  seventh  to  the  middle 


RUNIC,  73 

of  the  tenth  century.  Runes  are  said  to  have  been  laid  aside 
in  Sweden  by  the  year  1001,  and  in  Spain  they  were  officially 
condemned  by  the  Council  of  Toledo  in  1115. 

The  different  systems  of  runes,  all  accordant  up  to  a  certain 
point,  have  been  classed  as  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the  German, 
and  the  Norse,  each  containing  different  subordinate  varieties. 
The  Norse  alphabet  is  generally  considered  the  oldest,  and 
the  parent  of  the  rest.  It  has  sixteen  letters  corresponding  to 
our  /,  u,  th,  o,  r.  A:,  /i,  w,  i,  a,  5,  ^,  6,  ^,  m,  2/,  but  has  no  equiva- 
lent for  various  sounds  which  existed  in  the  language,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  sound  of  k  was  used  for  g^  d  for  ^,  b  for 
p,  and  u  and  y  for  v :  o  was  expressed  by  au^  and  e  by  a/,  i, 
or  ia;  and  the  same  letter  otherwise  was  made  to  serve  for 
more  than  one  sound.  Other  expedients  came,  in  the  course 
of  time,  to  be  employed  to  obviate  the  deficiency  of  tlie  sys- 
em, — as  the  addition  of  dots,  and  the  adoption  of  new  charac- 
ers.  But  the  runic  system  received  a  fuller  development 
among  the  Germans  and  Anglo-Saxons,  particularly  the  lat- 
ter, whose  alphabet  was  extended  to  no  fewer  than  forty  cha- 
racters, in  which  seem  to  have  been  embraced,  more  nearly 
than  in  any  modern  alpiiabets,  the  actual  sounds  of  a  lan- 
guage. The  table  on  the  following  i)age  exhibits  the  best 
known  forms  of  the  Anglo-Saxon,  German,  and  Norse  runic 
alphabets,  with  the  names  and  the  power  of  the  several  letters. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  runes,  as  here  given,  are  derived  from  a 
variety  of  MS.  authorities,  the  most  complete  containing  forty 
characters,  while  some  only  extend  as  far  as  the  twenty-fifth 
or  twenty-eighth  letter.  Neither  the  name  nor  the  power  of 
some  of  the  later  letters  is  thoroughly  known,  and  they  are 
without  any  equivalents  in  the  Norse  runic  S3^stem.  The  Ger- 
man runes  are  given  from  a  MS.  in  the  conventual  library  of 
St.  Gall,  in  Switzerland.  Though  the  various  runic  alphabets 
are  not  alike  copious,  the  same  order  of  succession  among  the 
letters  is  preserved,  excepting  that,  in  the  Norse  alphabet, 
laugr  precedes  madr^  although  we  have  placed  them  other- 
wise, with  the  view  of  exhibiting  the  correspondence  of  the 
three  sj^stems.  The  number  of  characters  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
alphabet  is  a  multiple  of  the  sacred  number  eight ;  and  we 
have  the  evidence  both  of  a  Swedish  bracteate  containing 
twenty-four  characters,  and  of  the  above  mentioned  St.  Gall 
MS.,  that  there  was  a  recognised  division  of  the  alphabet  into 
classes  of  eight  letters,— a  classification  which  forms  the  basis 

7 


74 


RUNIC, 


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a 

X 

1  i           11^ 

el                            i  e  ^ 

f 

CO      -P       rO          <U 

a 

a; 

s 

$3                             ^            'oJ                                     '%      X 

i 

i 

RUNIC. 


75 


of  a  system  of  secret  runes  mentioned  in  tliat  MS.  Of  these 
secret  runes,  there  are  several  varieties  specified :  in  particular, 
1.  lis-runa  and  Lago-runa  (of  which  specimens  exist  in  Scan- 
dinavia), consisting  of  groups  of  repetitions  of  the  character  iis 
or  lago,  some  shorter  and  some  longer,  the  number  of  shorter 
characters  in  each  group  denoting  the  class  to  which  the  letter 
intended  to  be  indicated  belonged ;  the  number  of  longer  ones, 
its  position  in  the  class.  2.  Hahal-runa,  where  the  letters  are 
indicated  by  characters  with  branching  stems,  the  branches  to 
the  left  denoting  the  class,  and  those  to  the  right  the  position 
in  that  class.  There  is  an  inscription  in  secret  runes  of  this 
description  at  Hackness,  in  Yorkshire.  3.  Stof-runa^  in  which 
the  class  is  indicated  by  points  placed  above,  and  the  position 
in  the  class  by  points  below,  or  the  reverse. 

The  best-known  inscriptions  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  charaotcn- 
are  those  on  two  grave-stones  at  Hartlepool,  in  Northumber- 
land, on  a  cross  at  Bewcastle,  in  Cumberland,  and  on  another 
cross  at  Ruthwell,  in  Dumfriesshire.  The  inscription  on  the 
west  side  of  Bewcastle  cross,  which  we  give  as  a  specimen  of 
Anglo-Saxon  runes,  is  a  memorial  of  Alcfrid,  son  of  Oswiu, 
who  was  associated  with  his  father  in  the  government  of  the 
kingdom  of  Northumbria,  in  the  seventli  century. 


FHhnhrrrrin 


It  has  been  thus  deciphered  into  the 
Anglo-Saxon  dialect  of  the  period ; — 
-I- THIS    SIGBECUN 
SETT^    HW^TRED 
EM    QJEKFM    BOLDU 
^FTJilR    BAR^ 
YMB    CYNING    ALCFRID^ 
GICEG^D    HEOSUM    SAWLUM. 
Or,  in  modern  English : — 

This  memorial 

Hwsetred  set 

and  carved  this  monument 

after  the  prince 

after  the  king  Alcfrid, 

pray  for  their  souls. 


The  inscription  on  the  Ruthwell  cross,  after  being  long  a 
puzzle  to  antiquaries,  was  first  deciphered  in  1838  by  Mr.  John 


76  RUNia 

M.  Kemble,  an  eminent  Anglo-Saxon  scholar.  It  is  written 
alternately  down  one  side  of  the  stone  and  up  another,  and 
contains  a  portion  of  a  poem  on  the  subject  of  the  Crucifixion. 
Mr.  Kemble' s  interpretation  received  a  very  satisfactory  con- 
firmation by  the  discovery  of  a  more  comiDlete  copy  of  the  same 
poem  in  a  MS.  volume  of  Anglo-Saxon  homilies  at  Yercelli, 

Mr.  D.  M.  Haigh,  whose  researches  have  added  much  to  our 
knowledge  of  Anglo-Saxon  runes,  has  endeavoured  to  set  up 
for  them  a  claim  of  priority  over  the  Norse  characters.  In- 
stead of  considering  the  additional  Anglo-Saxon  letters  as  a 
development  of  the  Norse  system,  he  looks  on  the  Norse 
alphabet  of  sixteen  letters  as  an  abridgment  of  an  earlier  sys- 
tem, and  finds  occasional  traces  of  the  existence  of  the  dis- 
carded characters  in  the  earliest  Norse  inscriptions,  and  in  the 
Scandinavian  lis-runa  and  Hahal-runa,  where  the  letters  are 
classified  in  accordance  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  groups  of  eight. 

The  Scandinavian  kingdoms  contain  numerous  runic  monu- 
ments, some  of  them  w^ritten  boustrophedon,  or  with  the  lines 
beginning  alternately  from  the  right  and  left ;  and  there  are 
many  interesting  inscriptions  on  Swedish  gold  bracteates, 
generally  having  reference  to  some  design  which  they  accom- 
pany. The  Celtic  races,  from  their  connection  with  the  Scan- 
dinavians, became  acquainted  with  their  alphabet,  and  made 
use  of  it  in  writing  their  own  language ;  and  hence  we  have, 
in  the  Western  Islands  of  Scotland  imd  in  tlie  Isle  of  Man, 
runic  inscriptions,  not  in  the  Anglo-Saxon,  but  in  the  Norse 
character,  with,  however,  a  few  peculiarities  of  their  own. 
Some  of  the  most  perfect  runic  inscriptions  are  in  Man ;  others 
of  a  similar  description  exist  at  Holy  Island,  in  Lamlash  Bay, 
Arran ;  and  there  is  an  inscription  in  the  same  character  on  a 
remarkable  brooch  dug  up  at  Hunterston,  in  Ayrshire.  Dr. 
D.  Wilson  considers  that  the  Celtic  population  of  Scotland 
were  as  familiar  with  Norse  as  the  Northumbrians  witli 
Saxon  runes. 

We  sometimes  find  the  Norse  runes  used  to  denote  nume- 
rals, in  which  case  the  sixteen  characters  stand  for  the  num- 
bers from  1  to  16;  ar  combined  with  laugr  stands  for  17. 
double  madr  for  18,  and  double  tyr  for  19.  Two  or  more  let- 
ters are  used  to  express  higher  numbers,  as  wr  m\  20 ;  thurs 
thurs  OS,  34.* 

*  Chanihprs's  Encyclopasdia,  piiblished  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  &  Co.,  Philadelphia. 


.'SAXON, 


ANGLO-SAXON  ALPHABET. 


The  Anglo-Saxon  alphabet,  and  the  forms  and  sounds  of 
the  letters,  are  shown  In  the  following  table : — 


Form. 

Sound. 

i           Form. 

Sound. 

'K  ...  a 

a  as  in  bar 

N  ...  n 

n 

B   ...  b 

h 

0   ...  o 

0 

L    ...  c 

c  as  in  c/mice  '\         P   ...  p 

P 

D  ...  b 

d                        1         R   ...  p 

r 

e   ....  e 

easin  feint               8     ...  j- 

s 

F   ...  > 

/                                 T   ...  c 

t 

r.  ...  s 

</as  in  gem           D  p    ...  tJ  J? 

th 

D  ^    ...  h 

h 

U  ...  u 

u 

I    ...  1 

i 

U)  ...  p 

w                     1 

K  ...  k 

k 

X   ...  X     1 

X                            j 

L   ...  1 

I 

V    ...  y      \ 

y              i 

CD   ...  m 

m 

/    ...  z       \ 

1 

2 

Two  useful  Anglo-Saxon  letters  have  disappeared  from 
modern  English, — namaly,  f>  or  |>  th  (^Ain),  and  D  or  '5  th 
(eAine). 

The  Anglo-Saxon  letters  wliich  vary  from  those  now  used 
were  doubtless  mere  corruptions  of  the  Roman  forms, — viz. 
the  capitals  A,  C,  E,  G,  H,  ]\I,  S,  and  W,  and  the  small  letters 
d,  f,  g,  i,  r,  s,  t,  and  w.  Several  notes  of  abbreviation  w cic 
used  by  the  Saxons,  as  !>  that,  -j  and,  ttc.  The  notes  of  al)l)re- 
viation  are  not  original  members  of  tlie  alphabet :  they  were 
the  result  of  later  reflection,  and  were  introduced  j^robably 
for  despatch.  ^i 

About  the  year  1567,  John  Daj^e,  who  was  patronized  by 
Archbishop  Parker,  cut  the  first  Saxon  ty^jes  which  were  used 
in  England.  In  this  year,  Asserius  Menevensis  was  published 
by  the  direction  of  the  archbishop  in  these  characters ;  in  the 
same  yeai-.  Archbishop  ^Ifric's  Paschal  Homily;  and  in  1571, 
tlie  Saxon  Gospels. 

On  the  two  following  pages  will  be  found  a  plan  of  cases  for 
Saxon  types. 

7* 


>SAXON. 


i 


r 

^ 

■|| 

I 

-=i 

3 

SI 

3 

1 

1 

SJ 

;ii. 

? 

>J      ■ 

O 

3 

- 

fe= 

^ 

;?. 

£i. 

-^ 

--== 

CD 

B 

H 

& 

eSNs 

Q 

^ 

00 

Q 

-Hi- 

r^ 

vJ 

^ 

tf 

N 

- 

PQ 

- 

O* 

>H 

* 

W 

^ 

^ 

X! 

>S.1X0^. 


79 


I 


00 

C5 

o 

cr 

s 

1 

1 

1> 

■s 

!> 

CO 

K) 

^ 

! 

lO 

'#4^ 

- 

•-^ 

tH 

C^ 

;-. 

p. 

CO 

•>. 

c^ 

o 

cfi 

^ 

<V 

^ 

i 

§ 

^ 

p 

»j 

• 

Q  S 

^1 

p 

s 

si 

^ 

^ 

- 

:  1 

1 

i 

rr\ 

A 

^ 

0- 



s 

X 

li 

80 


GERMAN, 


GERMAN  ALPHAhET, 

Outside  of  Germany,  there  is  perhaps  no  country  in  which 
German  printing  is  so  extensively  executed  as  in  the  United 
States.  We  therefore  present  a  table  of  German  characters, 
with  their  names,  and  tlieir  corresponding  forms  in  Englisho 


German  Form. 

English  Form. 

German  Name. 

SI   ...a 

A  ...  a 

ah 

33  ...  b 

B   ...  b 

bay 

e  ...  c 

C    ...  c 

tsay 

D  ...  b 

D   ...  d 

day 

(S  ...  e 

E   ...  e 

a 

%   -fff 

F    ...  f  ff 

ef,  ef-ef 

®  ...9 

G    ...  g 

gay 

.^  ...  ^  d) 

H  ...  h  ch 

hah,  tsay-hah 

^  ...t 

I    ...  i 

e 

5  ...i 

J    ...j 

yot 

^  ...  f  (f 

K  ...  k  ck 

kah,  tsay-kah 

«  ...  i 

L    ...  1 

el 

gji  ...  ttt 

M  ...  m 

em 

^  ...  n 

N   ...  n 

en 

0  ...  0 

0    ...0 

0 

^  ...  P 

P    ...  p 

pay 

Q  ...  q 

Q    ...  q 

koo 

^  ...  r 

R   ...  r 

er 

©  ...  f  g  ff 

S    ...  s  s  ss 

es,  es-es 

f  ft 

sz  st 

es-tset,  tay-tset 

2;  ...  t 

T    ...  t 

tay 

U  ...  u 

U   ...  u 

00 

25  ...» 

V   ...  V 

fow 

2B  ...  t)) 

W  ...  w 

vay 

X    ...  j: 

X   ...X 

Iks 

§1    ...  i) 

Y   ...y 

ipsilon 

3  ...  J  fe 

Z    ...  z  tz 

tset,  tay-tset 

a  i)  ii 

ae  oe  ue 

Several  of  the  German  letters,  having  a  somewhat  similar 
appearance,  are  liable  to  be  mistaken  one  for  another.  To 
aid  the  learner,  we  give  such  letters  together,  and  point  out 
the  difference. 

fd  (B)  and  S5  (Y). 

The  latter  is  open  in  the  middle,  the  former  joined  across. 


GERMAN.  81 

(£  (C)  and  (£  (E). 
(£  (E)  has  a  little  stroke  in  the  middle,  projecting  to  the 
right,  which  S  (C)  has  not. 

G5  (G)  and  (5  (S), 

These  letters,  being  both  of  rather  a  round  form,  are  some- 
times taken  one  for  another,  particularly  the  ®  for  the  (3. 
But  (B  (S)  has  an  opening  above,  ®  (G)  is  closed,  and  has  be- 
sides a  perpendicular  stroke  within. 

^  (K),  ^\  (N),  ^  (R). 

^  (K)  is  rounded  at  the  top,  9?  (N)  is  open  in  the  middle, 
01  (R)  is  united  about  the  middle. 

n  (M)  and  3B  (W). 
5W  (M)  is  open  at  the  bottom,  2B  (W)  is  closed. 

b  (b)  and  I  (h). 

6  (b)  is  perfectly  closed  below,  6  (h)  is  somewhat  open,  and 
ends  at  the  bottom,  on  one  side,  with  a  hair-stroke. 

f(f)andf(s). 

f  (f )  has  a  horizontal  line  through  it,  f  (s)  on  the  left  side 
only. 

m  (m)  and  m  (w).  I 

m  (m)  is  entirely  open  at  the  bottom,  xo  (w)  is  partly  closed. 

r  (r)  and  x  (x). 
y  (x)  has  a  little  hair-stroke  below,  on  the  left. 

t)  (v)  and  I)  (y). 

i)  (v)  is  closed,  t)  (y)  is  somewhat  open  below,  and  ends  with 
a  hair-stroke. 


82 


GERMAN. 


I 


^^^ 

B^H 

^^^^^B 

o 

f 

tHx 

- 

•i 

..•^o 

- 

^ 

I 

Mix 

- 

^ 

•A 

i 

Hco 

(§) 

If 

a 

KH- 

^ 

<^ 

I 

p^ 

tir. 

e 

m^ 

' 

H^ 

r+n 

f 

ir- 

=« 

® 

Q 

^ 

- 

te= 

«o 

-a 

^ 

^ 

S? 

- 

= 

O 

=fej 

^ 

^ 

H 

- 

CCW 

'^ 

Q 

c^ 

^ 

« 

++ 

CO 

o 

i2) 

^ 

^ 

OQ 

■^ 

(M 

05 

© 

Gl 

a 

S«) 

* 

I— 1 

QO 

feJ 

^ 

^ 

Hi 

GERMAN. 


83 


^^^^ 

^ 

1 

i:3 

.«- 

11 

a- 

5 

3 

-tfjt 

b= 

t:± 

tSD. 

<35 

a 

♦♦ 

^^ 

b=: 

^ 

- 

- 

* 

^^ 

<JS> 

^ 

=» 

-- 

5i± 

:0 

- 

Q 

« 

--« 

a« 

>0 

^ 

JQ 

« 

- 

ii 

>f^^ 

H 

3 

II 

'3  oj 

- 

-- 

f> 

-♦ 

0V3.    ■ 

- 

tei 

j:> 

K 

' 

84 


GREEK   ALPHABET, 


GREEK, 

A  SMALL  amount  of  Greek  types  is  indispensable  in  every 
considerable  book  printing-office.  The  Greek  alphabet  con- 
tains twenty-four  letters,  which  we  give  in  the  following  table, 
with  the  name  of  each  character  expressed  in  Greek  and  Eng- 
lish, and  its  sound  and  numerical  value. 

THE   GREEK   ALPHABET. 


Forms. 

Names  in  Greek  and 
English. 

Sounds. 

Nume- 
rical 
Value. 

A    ...  a 
B    ...  /3g 
r    ...  y 
A    ...  6 
E    ...  e 
Z    ...  ^ 
H  ...  ,, 

©  ...  ^e 
I   ...  I 

K     ...    K 

A    ...  A 

M  ...  fji 
N    ...  V 
E   ...  $ 
O    ...  0 

n  ...  77 
p  ...  p 

S    ...  o-s 

T     ...    T 

Y    ...  V 
4>    .  .  (^ 
X   ...  X 

*  ...  ^ 

il     ...    (O 

"AA^a Alpha 

BrjTa Beta 

rdfxfxa Gamma 

AeAra Delta 

*E\(jl\6v Epsilon 

ZiJTa Zeta 

•Hra Eta 

®rJTa Theta 

'Icora Iota 

KaTTTra Kappa 

Aa/j,j85a  ....  Lambda 

MD Mu 

NG Nu 

31 Xi 

'Ojat/cpov ...  Omicron 

nr Pi 

•P(o Rho 

2ty/xa Sigma 

Tav Tau 

*Yv/^iA6i/  ....  Upsilon 

*e Phi 

XZ Chi 

*r Psi 

''CLfxeya Omega 

a 
b 

g 

d 

e  short 

z 

e  long 

th 

i 

kc 

m 
n 

X 

0  short 

P 
r 

s 
t 
u 

ph 

ch 
ps 
0  long 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

7 

8 

9 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

100 

200 

300 

400 

500 

600 

700 

800 

From  a  desire,  probably,  to  imitate  Greek  manuscript,  a 
multitude  of  ligatures,  abbreviations,  and  contractions  of 
letters,  as  well  as  duplicates,  were  cast  by  the  early  type- 
founders. These,  however,  with  two  or  three  exceptions,  have 
been  quite  discarded;  and  a  fount  of  modern  Greek  is  readily 
accommodated  in  a  single  pair  of  cases.     The  only  duplicated 


'  Lenis. 

^'  Lenis  acute. 

'  Asper. 

'^  Lenis  grave. 

'  Acute. 

^'  Asper  acute. 

^  Grave. 

**  Asper  grave. 

"  Circumflex. 

GREEK.  85 

characters  in  the  preceding  table  are  (5  and  6,  i9  and  0^  and 
c  and  g.  /?  looks  best  when  used  as  an  initial  letter,  and  6  as  a 
medial.  -&  and  B  are  used  indiscriminately ;  but  q  is  employed 
as  a  final  letter  only. 

There  are  twelve  diphthongs  or  compound  vowels  in 
Greek,  viz. 

Six  proper, — aiy  af ,  et,  ev,  ol,  ov  ;  and 

Six  improper, — a,  ??,  w,  rjVy  vi,  uv.  The  point  under  the  first 
three  letters  denotes  the  iota,  and  is  therefore  called  the  sub- 
sc7'ipt  iota. 

ACCENTS  AND  ASPIRATES. 

"^  Circumflex  lenis. 
^  Circumflex  asper. 

Diairesis. 
*  Diseresis  acute. 
'•  Diaeresis  grave. 

Accents  are  nothing  more  than  small  marks  which  have 
been  introduced  into  the  language  to  ascertain  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  it,  and  facilitate  it  to  strangers.  Wherefore  the  ancient 
Greeks,  to  whom  it  was  natural,  never  used  them,  as  is  demon- 
strated from  Aristotle,  old  inscriptions,  and  ancient  medals. 
It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  tell  what  time  the  practice  of  writing 
these  accents  first  prevailed,  though  it  is  probable  not  till  after 
the  Romans  began  to  be  more  curious  of  learning  the  Greek 
tongue  and  to  send  their  children  to  study  at  Athens, — that  is, 
about  or  a  little  before  the  time  of  Cicero. 

Accents — by  the  Greeks  called  tovoc^  tones — are  the  rising 
or  falling  of  the  voice  in  pronouncing;  which  may  be  con- 
sidered either  separately  in  distinct  syllables,  or  conjunctively 
in  the  same  syllable. 

Wherefore  there  are  two  sorts  of  accents :  two  simple,  viz. 
the  acute,  b^vg,  figured  thus  ['],  which  denotes  the  elevation 
of  the  voice;  and  the  grave,  papvg^  shaped  thus  [^],  to  signify 
the  falling  or  depression  of  the  voice:  and  the  circumflex, 
TrepLaiTufiEvog,  which  was  formed  first  of  these  two  lines  or 
points  joined  together  thus  ["],  and  afterward  was  changed 
into  a  round  sort  of  a  figure  like  an  inverted  upsilon,  thus  [^], 
but  at  length  came  to  be  figured  like  an  s  drawn  crossway  ["]. 
— BelVs  Greek  Grammar. 


86  GREEK, 

The  acute  accent  raises  the  voice,  and  affects  one  or  mor© 
of  the  three  last  syllables  of  a  word,  if  it  has  so  many. 

The  grave  depresses  the  voice,  and  affects  the  last  syllable 
only. 

The  circumflex  lengthens  the  sound,  and  affects  either  the 
last  syllable  of  a  word,  or  the  last  but  one. 

There  are  two  spirits,  or  breathings:  the  asper  ['],  which 
the  Greeks  use  instead  of  the  letter  h ;  and  the  lenis  ['],  which 
denotes  the  absence  of  the  asper. 

All  the  words  that  begin  with  a  vowel  have  one  of  these 
breathings  over  them;  but  the  vowel  upsilon  admits  of  no 
other  than  the  spiritus  asper  at  the  beginning  of  a  word. 

In  diphthongs  the  spiritus  is  put  over  the  second  vowel :  as, 
avTOQ,  not  avTog, 

The  letter  p,  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  has  an  asper  over 
it,  as,  pfw;  and  where  two  /js  meet  in  a  word,  the  first  has  a 
leniSy  and  the  other  an  asper. 

The  apostrophe  [']  is  used  for  cutting  off  the  vowels  a,  e,  i,  o, 
and  the  diphthongs  at  and  o^,  when  they  stand  at  the  end  of  a 
word  and  the  next  word  begins  with  a  vowel :  as.  Trap'  avrfy  for 
TTopa  avrC) ;  ttcivt'  zkeyov  for  Trao^ra  eXeyov. 

Sometimes  the  apostrophe  contracts  two  words  into  one: 
as,  /ca'yo)  for  Kal  kyo);  kyof/LLai  for  kyo)  oljuai;  Ka'Keivog  for  kqI 
EKeivor. 

Sometimes  an  apostrophe  supplies  the  first  vowel  begin- 
ning a  word :  as,  o  'yade  for  w  ayade ;  ivov  'r^  for  ttov  eg-i.  This  is 
chiefly  used  in  poetry. 

But  the  prepositions  Trepl  and  Tvpo  suffer  no  apostrophe 
though  the  next  word  begin  with  a  vowel ;  for  we  write  irepl 
v/Lt6)v,  Ttpo  e/LLov ;  Tvepl  avrov,  rrpb  etcjv,  &c. 

The  diuresis  ["]  separates  two  vowels,  that  they  may  not  be 
taken  for  a  diphthong :  thus,  dvry  with  a  diaeresis  makes  three 
syllables ;  but  without  a  diseresis  av  is  a  diphthong,  and  makes 
ai'T^  two  syllables. 

Diastole  [,]  is  put  between  two  particles  that  would  bear 
a  different  sense  without  it:  thus,  b,rE  b,Tt  signify  whatever; 
whereas  ore  stands  for  as,  and  bri  for  that.  To,  re  with  a  dias- 
tole implies  and  this;  but  when  without,  it  answers  to  the 
adverb  then. 


UREEK.  87 

Tiie  sign  of  interrogation,  in  (ireek,  is  made  by  a  semi- 
colon [;]. 

The  colon  is  made  by  an  inverted  full-point  [*]. 
All  other  points  are  the  same  as  in  English. 

The  compositor  will  find  it  advantageous  to  bear  in  mind 
the  following  rules  :— 

1.  No  accent  can  be  placed  over  any  other  than  one  of  the 
last  three  syllables  of  a  word. 

2.  The  grave  accent  never  occurs  but  on  the  last  syllable ; 
and,  this  being  the  case,  the  asper  grave  [' ]  and  lenis  grave 
[^]  can  be  wanted  only  for  a  few^  monosyllables. 

X  Xo  vowel  can  have  a  spirit,  or  breathing,  except  at  the 
beginning  of  a  word. 

4.  The  letter  p  is  the  only  consonant  marked  by  a  breathing. 

5.  Almost  every  word  has  an  accent,  but  very  seldom  has 
more  than  one ;  and,  when  this  happens,  it  is  an  acute  thrown 
back  upon  the  last  syllable  from  one  of  those  words  called 
enclitics  {leaning  hack),  which  in  that  case  has  none,  unless  it 
be  followed  by  another  enclitic.  In  no  other  case  than  this 
can  a  last  syllable  have  an  acute  accent,  except  before  a  full- 
point,  colon,  or  note  of  interrogation,  when  the  grave  accent 
of  the  last  syllable  is  changed  to  an  acute, — a  circumstance 
which  has  often  led  printers,  who  wore  ignorant  of  the  rea- 
sons for  accenting  the  same  word  diliorently  in  different  situa- 
tions, to  think  that  there  was  an  error  in  their  copy,  and  thus 
to  make  one  in  their  proof.  Most  errors,  however,  proceed 
from  those  who  do  not  think  at  all  about  the  matter. 


PLAN  OF  GREEK  CASES, 

The  following  plan  of  cases  for  Greek  type  is  probably 
more  convenient  than  any  other.  A  Roman  case  may  readily 
be  altered  to  accommodate  the  lower-case  sorts.  Compositors 
who  aspire  to  a  full  knowledge  of  their  art  should  by  all 
means  make  themselves  familiar  with  Greek  and  Hebrew 
letters  and  cases. 


88 


GREEK. 


r = 

JCO 

-*?> 



-eO 

-i?j 

^3 

-iCO 

-^?> 

-:0 

-:?J 

^3 

:Co 

'?> 

- 

••o 

:?J 

=3 

.CO 

•-§=- 

"" 

i-O 

"?> 

-3 

»-w 

•■?> 

^O 

•-Si 

-3 

ecu 

•=s> 

.. 

SO 

•=?> 

^3 

=.co 

>?> 

»«* 

»o 

»?i 

-3 

ceo 

•S> 

c. 

O 

'?> 

'3 

£«0 

'S^ 

.. 

to 

'?s 

*3 

♦CO 

-?> 

... 

-o 

'?> 

«3 

"CO 

*-?> 

'- 

-o 

-?J 

-3 

ICO 

'?> 

... 

!0 

t?5 

'3 

'Co 

'S^ 

'- 

/O 

/-^i 

-3 

vco 

^*> 

- 

N3 

3- 

^?> 

^ 

w 

w 

•e 

-^e 

■'Q 

tS3 

"^ 

^ 

??• 

:C3 

-O 

W 

^ 

H 

t!> 

"O 

■^Q 

< 

< 

W 

»C3 

cQ 

Ph 

M 

Ph 

C3 

C3' 

'G 

' 

-« 

" 

w 

H-t 

c 

» 

s- 

-<3 

- 

'« 

■ 

< 

<D 

o 

>< 

<i- 

^e 

' 

-« 

- 

iirRjijEK. 


89 


'Ci. 

^^ 

r»                               1 

1 

3 

-Q. 

o> 

-^- 

CO 

Q. 

' 

^ 

- 

- 

;^ 

S? 

fe 

3 

to 

- 

O 

o              1 

CO             . 

;^ 

i 

a. 
§ 

':5> 

•o 

5L 

^ 

U 

li 

^H 

c^ 

P 

ag 

<o 

5c 

>^                   i 

I      * 

Q^ 

u.                  il 

1 

90 


HEBREW  ALPHABET, 


HEBREW, 

The  Hebrew  alphabet  has  twenty-two  letters.  Column 
No.  1  of  the  following  table  indicates  the  force  of  Hebrew  let- 
ters when  read  without  points.  Column  No.  2  gives  their  force 
when  the  language  is  printed  with  the  Masoretic  points  or 
vowels,  which  are  of  later  date  than  the  letters.  The  names 
and  numerical  value  of  the  characters  are  also  shown. 


THE  HEBREW  ALPHABET. 


Names. 


No.  2. 


Numer. 
Value. 


K Aleph 

3 Beth 

J Gimel 

1 Daleth 

n He 

1 Vau 

T Zaiu 

n Cheth 

D Teth 

"• Jod 

3  *1  final....  Caph 

7 Lamed 

12  D  final...  Mem 

J  I  final Nun 

0 Samech 

^ Ain 

£3  n  final ...  Phe 
2^  Y  final...  Tzaddl 

p  I' Koph 

■^ Resch 

ty Shin  or  Sin 

n Thau 


Sounded   a   in 
war  {vowel) 


g  hard 


a  in  hate  {vow.) 

u  vowel,  or  be- 
fore a  vowel,  w 


Like  ee  in  Eng- 
lish {vowel) 
k  or  c  hard 


o  long  {vowel) 


j  soft 
q  or  qu 


A  gentle  aspirate 

Bh 

Gh 

Dh 

A  rough  aspirate 


Ds 
Hh 


j  consonant,  or  the 
softer  y 


hg,     or  hgh,    the 
roughest  aspirate 


?  hard 


6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

200 

300 

400 


HEBMEW.  91 


LETTERS  THAT   HAVE   A   LIKENESS  TO   OTHERS. 


Beth 

Caph 

Daleth 
1 

Caph 
1 

Resch 

Vau                 Zain 

1            r 

Jod         ^       Nun 

Mem 

0 

Samech 
D 

Gimel 

Nun 

He 

n 

Cheth 

n 

Thau 

n 

Teth 

£2 

Mem 

Ain  Tzaddi 


The  dividing  of  Hebrew  words  not  being  permitted,  the 
five  following  letters  are  cast  broad  to  enable  fhe  compositor 
to  justify  the  lines  without  irregular  spacing ; — 

Aleph        He       Lamed     Mem       Thau 

i<      n      ^     Oi      n 

Hebrew  has  no  capitals,  and  therefore  letters  of  the  same 
shape,  but  of  a  larger  body,  are  used  at  the  beginning  of 
chapters  and  other  parts  of  Hebrew  works. 

Hebrew  reads  from  the  right  to  the  left,  which  is  the  case 
with  all  other  Oriental  languages,  except  Ethiopic  and  Arme- 
nian. In  composing  it,  the  general  method  is  to  place  the  nick 
of  the  letter  downward,  and,  after  putting  the  points  to  the 
top,  to  turn  the  line  and  set  the  points  that  come  under  the 
letters.    If  the  letter  has  but  one  leg,  the  point  is  placed  im- 


92 


HEBREW. 


mediately  under  it ;  but  where  the  letter  has  two  legs,  it  is  put 
under  the  centre. 

The  Masoretic  points  or  vowels  are  subjoined  under  the 
consonant  3  (beth). 


1.  The  Long  Vowels. 
Kanietz t  aa        ^  ^^^ 

T 

Tzeri -  ee         Tj  bee 

Long  Chirek...  *f  ii        t^  bii 

Cholem *j  oo  'J33  ^^^ 

Shurek ?|  uu     ?j3  buu 


2.  The  Short  Vowels. 
Patach -a     '^hsi 

Soegol V  e     3^® 

Little  Chirek i     3  bi 

Kametz-chataph...  t  o     3  ^^ 

T 

Kibbutz •.,  ?fc     2  bu 


3,  Shevas,  which  imply  a  Vowel  to  be  ivanting. 


Simple  Sheva.. 
Patach  furtive. 


n 

n 


Chataph  Patach.. 
Chataph  Soegol... 


Chataph  Kametz f^  o 


The  last  three  are  called  compound  shevas ;  and,  in  fact, 
they  are  only  the  short  vowels,  to  which  the  simple  sheva  [ :  ] 
is  joined. 


Hebrew  accents  are  either  mere  points,  or  lines,  or  circles. 

Those  which  are  mere  points  or  dots  consist  of  one  or  two 
or  three  such  points,  and  are  always  placed  above  the  middle 
of  the  accented  letter,  thus. 

One,  called  rehia^  3>  !•©•  sitting  over. 

Two,  called  royal  zakeph  katon,  3,  or,  the  little  ele- 
vator^ from  its  figure,  which  is  composed  of 
upright  points. 

.Three,  called  royal  segolta,  3,  an  inverted  ['•']. 
The  lines  are  either  upright,  inclined,  or  transverse. 
The  upright  is  either  solitary  or  with  points  or  dots. 


That  con- 
sisting of 


HEBREW, 


93 


'between  two  words,  ^l^*  termed pe^ic/i;,  or  musical  pause, 
and  terminating  a  song. 

Metheg,  3   or  hridlej  an  euphonic  accent  at  the 

beginning  of  a  word. 
Royal  silluky  2>  ^^^>  which  is  placed  before  [:], 

sophpasukj  i.e.  toward  the  end. 


or 

under  a  ^ 
word, 


With 
points, 
namely, 


two,  above  the  letter,  royal  zakeph  gadhol,  2>  ^^^ 

great  elevator^  strains  the  sound, 
one,  below  the  letter,  royal   iehhir,  3,   broken 

sound,  from  its  figure  and  tone.  '^ 


Inclined  lines  hang  either  above  or  below. 


the  right 


Leader  pashta,  2»  extension^  extends  the  voice 
or  sound,  and  is  placed  above  the  last  letter 

of  the  word.  Subservient  kadma,  2>  cintc- 
cedenty  to  the  leader  geresh;  and  is  placed 
above  the  penult  or  antepenult  letter. 


the  left 


the  left 


-Leader  gereshj  3,  expulsion^  is  sung  with  an 

impelled  voice. 
(( 
Gereshajim,  2»  t'^o  expellerSy  from  the  figure* 
being  doubled, 
the  right  — laeadev  t(2:>hcha,  ^^  fatigue  ^  from  the  song  or  note. 

Of  subservient  Merca,  3,  lengthening  outj  from 

its  lengthening  out  the  song  or  note. 
Merca  kepkula^  2>  ^  double  lengthening  out, 

from  its  music  and  figure. 

The  transverse  line  is  either  right  or  curved :  thus,  "  "^ . 

The  right  line  is  placed  between  two  words,  connecting 
them  together,  thus,  3"D'  ^"^  ^^  called  maccaph^  i.e.  con- 
nection. 

The  curved  or  waved  line,  3,  is  called  leader,  zarka,  or,  the 
disperser^  from  its  modulation  and  figure. 

Circles  are  either  entire  or  semi. 

The  entire  circle  is  placed  always  above,  and  has  a  small 
inclined  line  attached  to  it. 


94  IIKBliKW. 

Either  on  the  left,  when  it  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  word, 
P 
3,  and  is  called  leader  telisha  the  greater,  or,  the  great  evulsion, 

Q 

Or  on  the  right,  when  it  is  placed  at  the  end,  2>  ^^^  is 
called  subservient  telisha  the  less. 

QP 

On  both  together,  3,  called  leader  karne  para,  the  horns  of 
the  heifer,  from  its  modulation  and  figure. 
The  semicircle  is  either  solitary  or  pointed. 
The  solitary  is  either  angular  or  reflected. 

J 

f  Subservient  hillui,  3,  elevated,  from  the  eleva- 
on         I 
,       .  ,      -}      tion  of  the  voice. 

[  Mmiach,  2,  placed  below,  from  its  position. 

r  'Leader  jethith,  ^,  drawing  back,  from  its  figure, 
on  < 

the  left    1  ^'^^t)S6i*vient  Tnahpach,   *2>  inverted,  also  from 
[     its  figure. 

r  either  single  subservient  darga,  ^,  a  degree. 
The  reflected  j  i   '^ 

is  1  or  double,  leader,  shalsheleth,  3,  ct  chain,  from 

I     its  figure  and  modulation. 
When  joined  with  other  points,  it  is  either  above  or  below 
the  letter. 

When  above  the  letter,  it  has  a  small  line  attached  to  it  on 

the  left,  3>  leader  paser,  the  disperser,  from  the  diffusion  of 
the  note. 

When  below  the  letter,  it  is  pointed  either  downward,  2, 

called  royal  athnach,  respiration,  as  the  voice  must  rest  up(ni 
it,  and  respire;  or  upward,  *^,  B\ibserYient,jerah-ben-jomo,  the 

V 

moon  of  its  own  day,  from  its  figure. 


PLANS  OF  HEBREW  CASES. 

The  first  plan  shows  a  common  case  for  Hebrew  without 
points ;  the  second  exhibits  a  pair  of  cases  with  points. 


HEBREW. 


95 


-n 

JJ 

— 

-U 

^U 

^ 

-1 

i 

- 

i^ 

D 

1 

V:: 

U 

u 

U 

u 

1 

tl 

nX* 

B 
c 
1 

li 

S    3 

1= 

p3 

i 

1 

c; 

-i 

u 

% 

^ 

^ 

-. 

^ 

- 

:j 

-l 

- 

H 

♦ 

Is 

15" 

- 

\D 

I 

•• 

^a 

u: 

1 

1 

c 

- 

n 

\ 

■ 

|5 

a 

l-r 

I 

O 

I 


96 


HEBREW. 


i 


^ 

c 

a 

- 

;& 

'- 

c: 

^ 

2 

^ 

^ 

D 

o 

-. 

!u 

■- 

s 

< 

^ 

:^ 

^ 

E 

V 

- 

.& 

- 

n 

-l 

o 

^ 

z 

- 

n. 

n: 

^^ 

a 

rr% 

^ 

r 

r 

r 

:r 

13 

f: 

r- 

- 

.- 

- 

-- 

.J^ 

Q 

n- 

n 

n 

n 

ii 

n. 

r 

r 

r 

r 

- 

■r 

X. 

% 

::^ 

n 

n 

G\ 

HEBREW. 


97 


■^^■^■■^p 

- 

II! 

"<2 

III 

•sjaiod 
joj  saiT3ap«n^ 

3 

1 

""^^ 

3'i 

*-« 

- 

1 

o 

- 

♦ 

^ 

ill 

r 

>« 

H 

- 

:^ 

% 

n 

n 

1 
e 

CO 

n. 

r 

*-• 

c 

£) 

ag 

n 

Q 

.J^ 

i| 

n 

- 

f~ 

a 

# 

■T* 

T^ 

- 

98 


MUSIC. 


In  no  department  of  letter-founding  has  the  progress  of 
improvement  been  more  decided  and  satisfactory  than  in  the 
production  of  music  type.  The  finest  work  of  the  music- 
stamper  cannot  surpass  the  ingenious  combinations  of  the 
type-founder  and  printer.  The  music  of  which  specimens  are 
here  given  is  cast  on  the  centre  of  the  body,  and  any  intelli- 
gent workman  may  learn  to  compose  it  with  facility. 


EXCELSIOR. 


DIAMOND  No.  1. 


^^^m^^- 


^* 


PS 


#-|-i*-^-^-H* — ^ — F?^ 


:t=t 


&=fe 


DIAMOND  No.  2. 

T  f         T  T 


^^  b  4  ^—^—^—^—  "p L  11^ 


AGATE  No.  3. 


ta 


I    I 


-(5>-- 


A 


'tt-4-r- 


^r=r- 


t 


MUSIC.  99 

MUSIC  COMPOSITION. 

A  KNOWLEDGE  of  the  rudinients  of  the  art  is  essential  to  the 
correct  and  expeditious  composition  of  music  type ;  for,  unless 
the  compositor  is  acquainted  with  the  relative  time- values  of 
the  notes  and  rests,  he  cannot  apportion  them  properly. 

The  manuscript  copy  is  given  to  the  compositor,  with  direc- 
tions regarding  the  dimensions  of  the  page  required  and  the 
size  of  type  to  be  employed.  He  counts  the  number  of  mea- 
sures in  the  piece,  and  allots  to  each  measure  the  amount  of 
ems  in  length  which  the  page  will  permit,  so  that  there  shall 
be  a  general  equality  of  space  throughout  the  piece. 

In  instrumental  music,  and  in  pieces  which  are  not  inter- 
lined with  poetry,  the  compositor  will  set  two  or  more  staves 
simultaneously,  ranging  the  leading  notes  in  the  under  staves 
precisely  under  the  corresponding  ones  in  the  upper  staff; 
that  is,  a  certain  amount  of  space  in  each  staff",  in  a  brace, 
must  contain  the  same  amount  of  time-value.  Where  lines 
of  poetry  are  interspersed,  as  in  ballads  and  in  church  music, 
the  staves  are  necessarily  set  singly;  and  in  composing  the 
second  staff  the  workman  must  therefore  constantly  refer  to 
the  first,  in  order  to  make  the  staves  correspond,  proceeding 
in  like  manner  with  the  tliird  and  fourth. 

A  good  compositor  will  l)e  careful  to  make  the  lines  overlap 
each  other,  brick-wise,  and  not  allow  a  joint  to  fall  directly 
under  another.  Masters  who  aim  to  do  cheap  rather  than 
good  work  have  the  music  lines  cast  double  or  triple,  to  ex- 
pedite composition.  Such  work  has  a  very  slovenly  look,  as 
the  joints  of  the  lines,  coming  under  one  another,  are  apparent 
in  the  entire  depth  of  the  staff.  We  have  seen  books  set  in 
this  manner,  in  which  all  the  lines  seem  to  be  composed  of 
dotted  rule,  instead  of  a  continuous  stroke. 

The  compositor  should  be  careful  to  make  the  stems  of  all 
the  notes  in  a  page  of  the  same  length,  except  those  of  grace- 
notes,  which  should  be  about  half  as  long. 

PLAN  OF  CASES. 

The  following  plan  of  cases  is  adapted  to  L.  Johnson  <fe  Com- 
pany's Diamond  Music  No.  1 ;  but,  modified,  will  serve  gene- 
rally for  the  other  new  styles.  The  figures  refer  to  the  number 
of  the  characters,  as  printed  in  the  music  scheme  furnished 
with  founts. 


100 


MUSIC. 


CM 

CM 

•       CM 

( 

CM 
CM 

ostsr  CM 

^?                    o 

JJ-    a 

[ 

CM 
CM 

( 

CM 
CM 

OS 
JM-    CM 

«1<    1                       lO 

_M.      CO  1     zW!^  CM 

"1 

f       S 

[ 

O 
CM 
CM 

(f    2 

CO 

^  s 

W-    a 

\  I 

([  s 

r4 

T-l 

in 
-fc.      CO 

=*at    N 

-L  s 

\  I 

r      CO 

V           CM 

1  1 

^  ? 

^  I 

(1  " 

^'          CM 

(    1 

\i 

( 

o 

CM 

/ 

\ 

o 

CM 

--^  J^ 

eo 

<   s 

(    i 

(1 

(i 

(i 

^  ^ 

»Wjh  S 

yi 

,:,          CM 

I—   S 

CO 

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r4 

y  3 

Y   5 

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J_  s 

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\  s 

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i  = 

h 

1         «^ 

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jT        CO 

\  s 

7  s 

l5 

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*         CO 

\   s 

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u 

C  = 

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CM 

1  s 

V    £ 

r  s 

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r  5 

J ^ 

tH 

IL      S 

\    S 

/  s 

^         CM 

(  5 

i—      S 

o 

1      ?^ 

I  s 

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MUSIC. 


101 


'  1 

CO 

1  I 

-        (M                 y        00 

1 
/       W   1        #        o 

#■      o 

/  S 

/        S              /        a 

/    2 

'- 1 

*    £ 

\  I 

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\    I 

CVJ 

\       o 

V      % 

*    £ 

\  I 

1 

\    I 

V       o 

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cs 

i  s 

!  '  - 

1 

I 
% 

-1    s 

;?? 

J    z 

-u    S 

_J^      l^ 

1-    2 

t* 

1 

CO 
CM 

JJ--    ^ 

1  2 

JLiJ.     ?3 

-LL   ;;; 

-L-     S 

i 
1         -            1         . 

i 

-Li±l  ^ 

*-    5 

*   g 

1         CQ 

1          CO 

CD 

u-mS 

.         ^ 

0-    t 

«  s 

1 

IJJJ4   B 

hh-hS 

CO 

•  s 

•-   3 

«    S 

tt  s 

J   !: 

J  t 

J  s 

(TN  2 

•    5 

1  t 

I  s 

(    I 

jommiMBmmam 

9^:j 


102 


Mvisia 


l> 

00 

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CM 

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o 

00 

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1 

CO 

1        w 

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THE   ART   OF    COMPOSITION. 


GENERAL  REMARKS, 


■pXPERIENCE   proves   that 


the 
approiitice  foreshadows  the 
workman,  just  as  surely  as  the 
bend  of  the  twig  foretells  the  in- 
clination of  the  tree.  The  up- 
right, obedient,  industrious  lad 
will  graduate  a  steady,  skilful, 
and  capable  man,  as  unmis- 
takably as  the  perverse,  idling, 
careless  boy  will  ripen  into  a 
lazy,  dissolute,  and  worthless 
fellow.  The  fact  is,  a  boy  is 
measurably  the  maker  of  his 
ow^n  destiny;  and  if  he  fails  to 
acqtiire  a  master-knowledge  of 
the  trade  to  which  he  is  put,  it 
will  mainly  be  because  he  did  not  at  his  outset  determine  to 
be  a  master-workman.  Good  morals  and  steady  industry  are 
indispensable. 

When  a  lad  who  possesses  these  qualities  proposes  to  learn 
the  art  and  mystery  of  printing,  it  should  be  inquired  of  him, 
Has  he  had  a  fair  common-school  education?  Is  he  a  perfect 
Speller?  Has  he  a  turn  for  reading?  Is  his  ej^esight  good? 
Is  he  tinder  fifteen  years  of  age?  A  true  affirmative  answer 
to  all  these  queries,  will  entitle  him  to  the  position  of  reading 
and  errand  boy.  He  is  told  the  hours  at  which  he  is  to  come 
and  go,  and  a  strict  punctuality  is  enjoined  upon  him.    He 

103 


104  COMPOSITION. 

sweeps  the  room, — he  sorts  out  the  pi, — he  learns  the  position 
of  the  various  letters  in  the  case.  A  year  spent  in  this  way  is 
an  excellent  preparative  for  '*  going  to  case,"  or  learning  the 
art  of  composing  type. 

When  he  is  put  to  composition,  he  is  told  to  set  up  one  line 
and  show  it  to  the  foreman  or  to  the  journeyman  under  whose 
care  he  may  be  placed.  The  errors  in  the  line  are  pointed  out 
to  him,  and  he  is  required  to  correct  them  himself.  When  the 
words  are  perfectly  correct,  he  justifies  the  line  tight  enough 
to  prevent  it  from  falling  down  when  the  composing-stick  is 
slightly  inclined,  and  yet  sufficiently  loose  to  enable  him  to 
lift  it  out  with  ease.  In  thus  spacing  out  the  line,  the  blanks 
between  the  words  must  be  so  graduated  that,  when  the  matter 
is  printed,  all  the  words  will  ajD^^ear  at  equal  distances  apart. 
No  matter  how  impatient  he  may  be  to  get  on,  he  must  be 
drilled  at  this  exercise  till  he  becomes  a  thorough  master  of  it. 
The  grand  doctrine  to  be  instilled  into  him  at  first  is,  to  do  his 
work  well  and  correctly ;  swiftness  will  follow  as  a  natural 
consequence.  He  sets  a  second  line;  and  after  it  has  been 
made  faultless  he  proceeds  with  the  third,  and  so  on  till  the 
stick  is  full.  The  utmost  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  every 
letter  and  every  line  in  an  exact  vertical  position ;  and  when 
he  essays  to  empty  the  stick  he  must  be  taught  to  lift  the 
entire  mass  in  one  square  solid  body,  and  to  place  it  squarely 
and  vertically  on  the  galley.  If  the  lines  are  allowed  to  slant 
either  backward  or  sidewise,  it  is  difficult  afterward  to  make 
them  stand  accurately. 

After  the  apprentice  has  become  thoroughly  conversant 
with  the  shape  of  every  type,  and  can  distinguish  "u"  from 
*'n,"  '^b"  from  "q,"  and  "  d"  from  "  p,"  he  is  allowed  to  dis- 
trilnite  type  for  his  own  use.  He  is  taught  to  take  up  at  one 
time  no  more  matter  than  he  can  conveniently  grasp  in  his 
left  hand,  which  he  holds  so  that  the  light  falls  on  the  face  of 
the  type,  and  his  eye  can  readily  read  it.  In  distributing  the 
various  letters,  he  takes  a  word  or  two  between  the  thumb  and 
forefinger  of  his  right  hand,  and  the  types  are  lightly  dropped 
\  into  their  respective  boxes. 

At  the  outset,  and  as  he  proceeds,  the  novitiate  must  be 
cautioned  against  the  acquisition  of  bad  habits ;  such  as  swing- 
ing the  body  as  the  types  are  picked  up,  nicking  the  type 
against  the  stick  several  times  before  placing  it  in  line,  stand- 
ing on  one  leg,  &c. 


COMPOSITION,  105 

While  avoiding  these  ridiculous  practices,  a  learner  must 
acquire  (if  he  does  not  possess  them  already)  certain  habitudes 
or  principles  which  lie  at  the  foundation  of  successful  effort. 
The  first  is 

Punctuality,  He  must  conscientiously  observe  the  time- 
rules  of  the  office  in  coming  and  leaving.  The  early  hours  are 
the  best  for  work;  and  the  mind  being  cheered  by  the  con- 
sciousness of  doing  right,  the  body  feels  the  influence,  and  is 
strengthened ;  and  when  the  quitting  hour  arrives,  the  amount 
of  work  accomplished  will  satisfy  himself  and  his  master  too. 
The  most  successful  masters  have  been  distinguished  for 
punctuality.  The  apiirentice's  time  is  not  his  own,  but  his 
master's  property;  and  wasting  it  by  Avant  of  punctuality,  or 
idling  during  his  master's  absence,  is  simply  equivalent  to 
stealing.    The  second  point  is 

Obedience,  The  apprentice  has  no  right  to  question  orders 
given  by  the  master  or  his  deputy.  His  duty  is  promptly  to 
do  as  he  is  told,  without  grumbling  or  dissatisfaction.  Let 
him  remember  that  he  is  under  orders,  and  that,  if  he  ever 
expects  to  learn  how  to  command,  he  must  learn  in  his  youth 
how  to  obey.  He  will  promote  his  own  interests  by  seeking 
to  anticipate  his  master's  wishes,  and  l)y  endeavouring  to 
make  himself  so  useful  that  his  services  cannot  well  be  dis- 
pensed Avith.    Akin  to  this  is 

Courtesy.  Good  manners  in  a  youth  are  wonderfully 
pleasing,  and  effectively  aid  in  his  advancement.  Courtesy 
toward  his  master  is  a  matter  of  course,  and  deserving  of  little 
commendation ;  but  he  must  be  courteous  to  customers  when 
sent  out  on  an  errand,  and  courteous  to  the  workmen  in  the 
office.  By  this  means  he  will  secure  good-will,  and  many  a 
friendly  hint  will  be  given  to  him  in  acquiring  a  knowledge 
of  the  art.  The  habit  when  fixed  will  bless  him  and  others  as 
long  as  he  lives. 

PLAN  OF  CASES, 

The  following  schemes  show  the  order  in  which  the  letters 
are  kept  in  cases  in  this  country.  In  some  offices,  however, 
slight  deviations  will  be  found, — such  as  the  transposition  of 
the  comma  and  w,  y,  p,  &c. 


106 


COMPOSITION. 


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COMPOSITION, 


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COMPOSITION. 


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POSITION— LAYING  TYPE.  109 


POSITION. 

The  standing  position  of  a  compositor  should  be  perfectly 
upright,  without  stiffness  or  restraint ;  the  slioulders  thrown 
back,  the  feet  firm  on  the  floor,  heels  nearly  closed,  and  toes 
turned  out  to  form  an  angle  of  about  forty-five  degrees.  The 
head  and  body  should  be  kept  perfectly  steady,  except  when 
moving  from  the  Roman  to  the  Italic  case,  the  operations  of 
distributing  and  composing  being  performed  by  the  various 
motions  of  the  arm,  from  the  shoulder-joint  alone ;  and  if,  to 
reach  a  box  placed  in  the  further  part  of  the  cases,  to  put  in  or 
take  out  a  letter,  he  should  incline  the  body  by  a  slight  motion, 
he  should  immediately  resume  his  erect  position.  The  height 
of  a  compositor  and  his  frame  should  be  so  adjusted  that  his 
right  elbow  may  just  clear  the  front  of  the  lower  case  by  the  a 
and  r  boxes,  without  the  smallest  elevation  of  the  shoulder- 
joint;  his  breast  will  then  be  opposite  the  space,  h,  and  e 
boxes.  Sitting  at  work  should  be  rarely  permitted,  except  for 
lameness,  weakness,  old  age,  or  other  infirmity ;  and  then  the 
stool  should  be  a  small  piece  of  board  fastened  to  a  single  leg. 
Habit  will  render  a  standing  position  familiar  and  easy ;  per- 
severance in  conquering  a  little  fatigue  will  be  amply  repaid 
by  the  prevention  of  knock  knees,  round  shoulders,  and  ob- 
structed circulation  of  the  blood  and  respiration  of  the  lungs. 

LAYING  TYPE. 

Unwrap  carefully  the  page  received  from  the  type-founder, 
and,  laying  it  on  a  galley,  soak  it  thoroughly  with  thin  soap- 
water,  to  prevent  the  tyjDCS  from  adhering  to  one  another  after 
they  have  been  used  a  short  time.  Then,  with  a  stout  rule  or 
reglet,  lift  as  many  lines  as  will  make  about  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness, and,  placing  the  rule  close  up  on  one  side  of  the  bottom 
of  the  proper  box,  slide  off  the  lines  gently,  taking  care  not  to 
rub  the  face  of  the  letter  against  the  side  of  the  box.  Proceed 
thus  with  successive  lines  till  the  box  is  filled. 

Careless  compositors  are  prone  to  huddle  new  types  to- 
gether, and,  grasping  them  up  by  handfuls,  plunge  them  pell- 
mell  into  the  box,  rudely  jostling  them  about  to  crowd  more 
in.    This  is  an  intole-rable  practice. 

The  type  left  over  should  be  kept  standing  on  galleys,  in 
10 


110  DISTRIBUTING, 

regular  order,  till  the  cases  need  replenishment.  A  fount  of 
five  hundred  pounds  of  Pica  may  have,  say,  four  cases  allotted 
to  it ;  the  same  amount  of  Nonpareil,  from  eight  to  ten  cases. 

DISTRIB  UTING, 

When  a  learner  can  infallibly  distinguish  from  each  other 
the  letters  b  and  q,  d  and  p,  n  and  u,  and  1  and  I,  he  may  be 
allowed  to  distribute  type  for  himself. 

The  head  of  the  page  being  turned  toward  him,  the  learner 
sets  a  composing-rule  behind  the  portion  to  be  lifted,  and  then, 
placing  his  thumbs  against  the  rule  and  his  forefingers  against 
the  top  line,  while  his  remaining  fingers  press  together  both 
sides,  he  raises  the  matter  quickly.  Then,  inclining  sidewise 
his  right  hand,  he  removes  the  left,  and  allows  the  matter  to 
balance  momentarily  in  his  right,  while  he  doubles  in  the 
third  finger  and  stretches  out  the  thumb  of  the  left  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  matter,  which  he  at  once  places  in  it,  the  rule 
lying  as  a  support  on  the  third  finger,  while  the  thumb  and 
other  fingers  embrace  the  sides.  He  should  take  up  but  a  few 
lines  at  a  time,  until  he  acquires  facility  in  lifting.  Large 
handfuls  should  always  be  avoided,  as  the  weight  is  fatiguing 
and  weakening  to  the  wrist. 

Keeping  the  handful  in  an  inclined  position,  so  that  he  may 
readily  read  the  lines,  he  takes  up  as  many  letters  as  he  can 
conveniently  hold  between  his  fingers, — an  entire  word,  iJ 
practicable,— and  drops  the  tj^pes  slantingly,  but  with  face  up- 
ward,  into  the  several  boxes. 

The  first  aim  of  the  learner  must  be  accuracy,  even  though 
his  progress  be  slow.  Correct  distribution  aids  in  clean  com- 
position. In  time  he  will  be  able  to  drop  his  types  rapidly, 
with  hardly  a  glance  at  the  boxes ;  and,  while  his  fingers  are 
flying  about  correctly  and  expeditiously,  his  eyes  will  take  in 
the  next  word  to  be  distributed;  thus  proceeding  without 
cessation. 

In  distributing,  the  utmost  care  should  be  taken  in  placing 
the  various  spaces  in  their  appropriate  boxes.  A  mixing  of 
spaces  characterizes  the  botch. 

The  letter-board  should  always  be  kept  clean,  and  the  bot- 
tom as  well  as  the  face  of  the  form  well  washed  before  it  is  laid 
on  the  board  and  unlocked ;  for,  if  any  dirt  remain  from  the 
ley-brush  after  the  form  is  unlocked,  it  will  sink  into  the 


COMPOiSING,  111 

matter  instead  of  running  otf.  This  precaution  taken,  the 
pages  should  be  well  opened,  and  the  whole  form  washed  till 
the  water  appears  to  run  from  it  in  a  clean  state.  If  the  form 
is  very  dirty,  it  is  best  to  lock  it  up  again  and  rinse  the  bottom 
of  it,  and  proceed  as  before. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  dr^^  the  letter  at  the  fire  after 
distributing.  In  this  case,  the  tyxje  should  not  be  used  until  it 
is  perfectly  cold,  as  very  pernicious  eflects  arise  from  the  anti- 
mony in  the  composition  of  which  the  type  is  made.  The 
noxious  vapour  which  arises  is  sufficient  warning  of  the 
efi'ects.  The  compositor  ought  always  to  avoid  it  as  a  pesti- 
lence which  will  equally  affect  his  respiration  and  his  sinews, 
inducing  lung-complaints,  and  causing  paralysis  of  the  hand 
or  contraction  of  the  fingers.  Where  it  can  be  conveniently 
managed,  it  is  better  to  distribute  at  night,  or  before  meals, 
so  that  the  letter  may  dry  without  artificial  heat. 

COMPOSING. 

Composing  is  a  term  which  includes  several  exercises,  as 
well  of  the  mind  as  the  body;  for,  when  we  are  said  to  com- 
pose, we  are  at  the  same  time  engaged  in  reading  and  spelling 
what  we  are  composing,  as  well  as  in  taking  care  to  space  and 
to  justify  our  matter. 

WJien  copy  is  put  into  the  hands  of  the  compositor,  he 
should  receive  directions  respecting  the  width  and  length  of 
the  page ;  whether  it  is  to  be  leaded,  and  with  wdiite  lines  be- 
tween the  breaks ;  and  whether  any  particular  method  is  to 
be  follow^ed  in  the  punctuation  and  in  the  adoption  of  caj^itals. 
These  instructions  being  given,  the  compositor  will  make  his 
measure  to  the  number  of  ems  directed,  which  is  done  by  lay- 
ing them  flatwise  in  the  composing-stick,  and  then  screwing 
it  up  sufficiently  tight  to  prevent  the  slide  from  moving.  He 
then  fits  a  composing-rule  to  the  measure,  and,  his  case  being 
supplied  with  letter,  he  commences  his  work. 

The  left  hand,  which  contains  the  composing-stick,  should 
always  follow  the  right,  which  takes  up  the  letters.  If  the 
left  be  kept  stationary,  considerable  time  is  lost  in  bringing 
each  letter  to  the  stick,  because  the  right  hand  has,  conse- 
quently, to  traverse  a  much  greater  space  than  is  necessary. 
The  eye  should  always  precede  the  hand,  constantly  seeking 
for  the  next  letter  while  the  fingers  are  picking  up  one  just 


112  COMPOSING, 

selected.  Each  letter  should  be  taken  up  by  the  upper  end. 
This  method  will  effectually  prevent  any  false  motion,  and 
preclude  the  necessity  of  turning  the  letter  when  in  the  hand. 
If  possible,  a  sentence  of  the  copy  should  be  taken  at  one  time, 
and,  while  putting  in  the  point  and  quadrate  at  the  end  of  the 
sentence,  the  eye  may  revert  to  the  copy  for  the  next.  It  is  to 
dexterity  in  these  particulars  that  compositors  are  indebted 
for  swiftness.  The  time  thus  gained  is  very  considerable, 
while  all  appearance  of  bustle  or  fatigue  is  avoided.  By 
taking  a  sentence  into  the  memory  at  one  time,  the  connection 
.  of  the  subject  is  preserved,  and  the  punctuation  rendered  less 
difficult. 

Those  who  are  careful  in  distribution  find  the  advantage 
of  it  in  composition.  Foul  or  slovenly  workmanship  is  dis- 
graceful. To  avoid  this,  a  compositor  should  accustom  him- 
self to  glance  over  each  line  as  he  justifies  it,  and  correct  any 
error  as  he  proceeds,  which  he  may  do  with  little  impediment 
to  his  progress. 


Uniformity  in  spacing  is,  unquestionably,  a  most  important 
part  of  a  compositor's  occupation ;  this  requires  both  care  and 
judgment,  and,  therefore,  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed 
upon  the  mind  of  the  beginner.  Close  spacing  is  as  unwork- 
manlike as  wide  spacing,  and  neither  ought  to  be  permitted 
except  in  very  narrow  measures ;  and,  frequently,  even  then 
with  care  it  might  partly  be  prevented.  What  is  commonly 
called  the  thick  space  is  the  proper  separator  between  each 
word ;  though  this  rule  cannot  always  be  adhered  to  in  nar- 
row measures  when  large  type  is  used.  It  is  not  sufficient 
merely  to  have  a  line  here  and  there  uniformly  spaced: 
a  careful  compositor  will  give  every  page  that  uniformity  of 
appearance  which  is  a  chief  excellency.  The  beginner  should 
remember  that  it  is  better  to  do  little,  and  to  do  that  little 
well,  than  to  put  together  a  great  number  of  letters  without 
any  regard  to  accuracy  and  uniformity. 

Where  a  line  is  evenly  spaced,  and  yet  requires  justifica- 
tion, the  additional  space  should  be  put  between  those  words 
in  the  line  where  it  will  be  least  observable :  viz.  a  d  and  an 
h,  being  tall,  perpendicular  letters,  will  admit  an  increase  of 
space  between  them,  but  not  more  than  a  middle  and  thin 
space  to  a  thick-spaced  line  ;  and  an  additional  space  may  be 


COMPOSING.  113 

placed  after  a  kerned  letter,  the  beak  of  which  may  bear  upon 
the  top  of  an  ascending  letter,— as  the  f  and  the  h,  i,  1,  &c. 

The  same  rule  should  be  observed  where  it  is  necessary  to 
reduce  the  spacing  of  a  line,  less  space  being  required  after 
a  sloping  letter  than  after  a  perpendicular  one.  The  comma 
requires  only  a  thick  space,  but  the  other  points  should  have 
a  hair  space  before  and  an  en  quadrate  after  them,  except  the 
full-point,  which  should  have  an  em  quadrate,  as  terminating 
a  sentence.  Should  it  be  necessary  to  reduce  the  spacing  gene- 
rally, the  spaces  after  the  points  must  be  altered  in  the  same 
proportion.  Spaces  are  now  cast  to  such  regular  gradations, 
that  the  compositor  can  urge  no  reasonable  excuse  either  for 
bad  justification  or  improper  spacing. 

JUSTIFYING. 

Accurate  justification  is  absolutely  essential,  as  the  letters 
will  be  warped  sidewise  in  a  loose  line,  making  it  impossible 
to  get  a  fair  impression  from  the  type.  Besides,  the  letters  are 
liable  to  be  drawn  out  by  the  suction  of  the  rollers,  to  the 
detriment  of  the  form  and  the  press.  The  instructor  of  an 
apprentice  should  occasionally  pass  his  finger  along  the  side 
of  matter  set  by  him ;  and  if  the  lines  should  not  i^rove  evenly 
justified,  they  should  be  put  into  the  composing-stick  again 
and  properly  corrected. 

HEAD-LINES. 

Head-lines  are  generally  set  in  small  capitals  of  the  same 
fount,  or  in  Italic,  and  sometimes  in  capitals.  Italic  capitals 
of  letter  somewhat  smaller  than  the  body  of  the  work,  with 
folios  of  a  proportionable  size,  have  a  neat  appearance. 


The  usual  rule  for  note-type  is  two  sizes  less  than  the  text 
of  the  work :  thus,  to  Pica  work.  Long  Primer ;  Small  Pica, 
Bourgeois;  Long  Primer,  Brevier.  Side-notes  are  usually 
smaller  in  proportion.  When  side-notes  or  references  drive 
down  below  the  lines  of  the  text  to  which  they  refer,  the  ex- 
pedient of  cut-in  notes  must  be  resorted  to.  This  is  a  difficult 
part  of  a  compositor's  business,  and  requires  skill  and  patience 
to  adjust  all  parts,  so  that  every  line  of  note  and  text  riiay 
have  proper  and  equal  bearing.  The  reglet  or  lead  between 
the  lines  of  matter  and  the  side-note  must  be  cut  with  as  much 

10* 


114  COMPOSING. 

nicety  as  possible  to  the  length  of  the  text,  as  far  as  where  the 
note  is  to  run  under;  and,  having  accurately  adjusted,  by 
means  of  the  quotations  and  justifiers,  the  situation  of  the 
first  line  of  the  note,  such  lead  or  reglet  is  added  to  the  text 
as  will  make  it  precisely  correspond  in  depth  with  the  lines 
of  note  that  stand  on  the  side  before  turning :  the  remainder 
of  the  note  is  then  set  in  a  long  measure,  to  correspond  in 
width  with  the  text,  reglet,  and  side-note;  and  the  page  is 
made  up  with  note,  or  the  text  begun  again  after  the  note 
is  finished.  In  Bibles  with  notes  and  annotations,  in  law- 
books, and  other  works,  it  frequently  happens  that  a  page 
exhibits  several  of  these  alternate  frameworks  of  note  and 
text,  which,  if  done  well,  display  a  workman's  skill  to  great 
advantage. 

BLANKING. 

If  the  work  is  very  open,  consisting  of  heads,  whites,  &c., 
the  compositor  must  be  particularly  attentive  to  their  depth ; 
so  that  though  the  white  may  be  composed  of  different-sized 
quadrates,  yet  their  ultimate  depth  must  be  equal  to  the  regu- 
lar body  of  the  type  the  work  is  done  in ;  otherwise  the  register 
of  the  work  will  be  incomx^lete.  The  pressman  cannot  make 
the  lines  back  if  the  comjoositor  is  not  careful  in  making  up 
his  matter. 

PARAGRAPHS. 

The  first  line  of  a  new  paragraph  is  indented  an  em  quad- 
rate, of  whatever  type  the  work  may  be ;  though,  when  the 
measure  is  very  wide,  two  or  even  three  ems  are  preferable. 
By  this  means  the  paragraph  is  more  strongly  marked,  the 
indention  of  an  em  only  being  scarcely  perceptible  in  a  long 
line.  Authors  vary  materially  in  \he  mode  of  making  para- 
graphs. Some  carry  the  argument  of  a  position  to  a  great 
length  before  they  relieve  the  attention  of  the  reader ;  while 
others  break  off  at  almost  every  place  that  will  admit  only  of 
a  full-point.  But  the  author's  plan  is  to  be  followed,  unless 
he  direct  otherwise.  Authors  should  always  make  the  begin- 
ning of  a  new  paragrajoh  conspicuous  to  the  compositor,  by 
indenting  the  first  line  of  it  far  enough  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  preceding  line  in  case  it  should  be  quite  full. 

It  is  a  practice  too  i)revalent  among  compositors  to  drive 
out  a  word  at  the  close  of  a  paragraph,  or  even  to  divide  it,  in 
order  to  reap  the  advantage  of  a  break-line.    Part  of  a  word, 


COMPOSING,  115 

or  a  complete  word,  in  a  break-line,  if  it  contain  no  more  than 
three  or  four  letters,  is  improper.  It  should  be  the  business 
of  the  proof-reader  to  notice  and  check  this  irregularity. 

The  last  line  of  a  paragrapli  should  not  on  any  account 
begin  a  page,  neither  should  the  first  line  of  a  paragraph  come 
at  the  bottom  of  a  page  if  the  work  has  white  lines  between 
the  breaks:  to  prevent  this,  the  compositor  may  make  his 
page  either  long  or  short,  as  most  convenient,  always  taking 
care  that  the  odd  and  even  pages  back,  so  that  the  extra 
length  or  shortness  of  the  page  may  escape  observation. 


The  index  is  generally  placed  at  the  end  of  the  volume,  and 
set  in  letter  two  sizes  less  tlian  that  of  the  work.  It  is  always 
begun  upon  an  uneven  page.  In  setting  an  index,  the  subject- 
line  should  not  be  indented ;  but,  if  the  article  make  more 
than  one  line,  all  but  the  first  should  be  indented  an  em. 

In  preparing  the  copy  of  an  index,  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  subject-words  are  ranged  alphabetically,  as  the  com- 
positor will  not  transpose  his  matter  afterward  without  re- 
muneration. 

Where  several  index-figures  are  used  in  succession,  a 
comma  is  put  after  each  folio;  but,  to  save  figures  and 
commas,  the  succession  of  the  lormer  is  noted  by  putting  a 
dash  between  the  first  and  last  figures :  thus,  4-8.  Again,  if 
an  article  has  been  collected  from  two  pages,  the  folio  of  the 
second  is  supplied  by  57.,  or  sequente^  and  by  sgg.,  or  sequien- 
tibus,  when  an  article  is  touched  upon  in  succeeding  pages.  A 
full-point  is  not  put  after  the  last  figures,  because  it  is  thought 
that  their  standing  at  the  end  of  the  line  is  a  sufficient  stop. 
Neither  is  a  comma  or  a  full-point  placed  to  the  last  word  of 
an  article  in  a  wide  measure  and  open  matter  with  leaders; 
but  it  is  not  improper  to  use  a  comma  at  the  end  of  every 
article  where  the  figures  are  put  close  to  the  matter,  instead 
of  ruiming  them  to  tlie  end  of  the  line. 

TITLES. 

Ornamental  type  may  be  used  to  good  purpose  in  fancy 
jobs,  and  without  violating  any  of  the  canons  of  a  correct  taste. 
The  universal  eye  is  pleased  with  ornament ;  and  it  is  well  to 
foster  this  ftmcy,  just  as  we  cultivate  a  poetical  feeling,  or  a 
passion  for  music,  or  flowers,  or  any  beautiful  thing  that  God 


lie  COMPOSING. 

has  made.  But,  as  life  should  not  be  all  music,  or  flowers,  or 
poetry,  so  printing  should  not  be  all  ornament.  And  as  men 
whom  nature  puts  in  the  fore-front  of  all  other  men  are  noted 
for  an  intellectual  simplicity  bf  life  and  style,  so  the  title-page 
that  heralds  all  the  inner  pages  of  a  book  should  be  printed  in 
a  style  of  elegance  severe  and  unadorned :  no  fancy  type,  ex- 
cept a  line  of  Scribe  Text,  or  Old  English, — no  italics,  unless 
perchance  a  single-line  motto  in  Pearl  caps, — no  bold -face 
type,  nor  Antique,  nor  Gothic, — but  plain,  clear,  light-faced 
letters  that  seem  the  embodiment  of  the  soul  of  thought.  All 
experienced  printers  incline  to  this  simple  style;  but  pub- 
lishers sometimes  interfere  with  this  province  of  art  legitimate 
only  to  a  typographer,  and  insist  on  the  indulgence  of  a  taste 
which  certainly  owes  no  allegiance  to  any  of  the  laws  of 
beauty ;  and  the  printer  or  stereotyper  who  executes  the  book 
receives  credit  for  a  title-i3age  which  he  would  fain  utterly 
repudiate. 

We  add  a  few  hints  which  may  assist  the  learner.  1st. 
'  Having  divided  the  title  into  lines,  and  decided  upon  the  size 
of  type  suitable  for  the  principal  one,  begin  by  composing 
those  of  the  second  and  third  class,  both  in  ascending  and  de- 
scending order.  2d.  Avoid  having  two  lines  of  equal  length 
to  follow  or  come  in  contact  with  each  other.  3d.  Catch-words 
should  be  set  on  a  very  reduced  scale,  and  proportioned  ac- 
cording to  the  strength  of  the  preceding  and  succeeding  lines ; 
for  bold  catch-words  detract  from  the  general  effect  of  the 
title.  4th.  Close  attention  should  be  given  to  those  title-pages 
which  are  acknowledged  to  be  displayed  with  true  taste  and 
judgment. 

Authors  should  endeavour  to  make  their  title-pages  as  con- 
cise as  possible;  for  a  crowded  title  can  never  be  displayed 
with  elegance  or  taste. 

DEDICATIONS. 

The  dedication  generally  follows  the  title,  and  seldom  ex- 
ceeds one  page.  It  should  be  set  in  capitals  and  small  capitals, 
neatly  displayed.  The  name  of  the  person  to  whom  the  work 
is  dedicated  should  always  be  in  cajDitals,  and  the  terms.  Your 
very  humble  and  very  obedient,  &c.,  should  be  in  a  smaller 
tvpe,  and  the  signature  or  name  of  the  author  in  capitals  of  a 
smaller  size  than  that  in  which  the  name  of  the  personage  is 
printed  to  whom  the  book  is  dedicated. 


COMPOSING,  117 

CONTENTS. 

The  contents  follow  the  preface  or  introduction,  and  may- 
be set  either  in  Roman  or  Italic,  generally  two  sizes  smaller 
than  the  body  of  the  work;  the  first  line  of  each  summary 
full,  and  the  rest  indented  an  em  quadrate,  with  the  referring 
figures  justified  at  the  ends  of  the  respective  lines. 

PREFACES. 

Formerly,  the  preface  was  uniformly  set  in  Italic ;  at  present 
Roman  is  used,  one  size  larger  or  smaller  than  the  body  of  the 
work.  The  running  title  to  the  preface  is  commonly  set  in  the 
same  manner  as  that  of  the  body  of  the  work.  If  the  work 
has  been  printed  with  folios  only,  then  the  preface  should  be 
paged  in  like  manner. 

SIGNATURING. 

The  title,  preface,  &c.  of  a  volume  are  commonly  left  till  the 
body  of  the  work  is  finished,  as  circumstances  may  arise  in 
the  course  of  its  progress  through  the  press  which  will  induce 
the  author  to  alter  his  original  preface,  date,  &c.,  or  the  work 
may  conclude  in  such  a  manner  as  to  admit  of  their  being 
brought  in  at  the  end,  in  order  to  fill  out  a  sheet,  and  thus 
save  both  paper  and  press- work.  For  this  reason,  it  is  well 
to  begin  the  first  sheet  of  every  work  with  signature  B  (or  2), 
leaving  A  (or  1)  for  the  title-sheet. 

It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  omit  the  letters  J,  V,  and  W 
in  the  list  of  signi^tures.  But  the  greater  convenience  attend- 
ing the  use  of  twenty-five  letters  has  recently  induced  several 
of  our  largest  establishments  to  omit  the  letter  J  only. 


The  errata  are  put  immediately  before  the  body  of  the 
work,  or  at  the  end  of  it.  They  should  consist  only  of  such  cor- 
rections as  are  indispensably  necessary^  without  noticing  any 
defects  in  the  punctuation,  unless  where  the  sense  is  per- 
verted. It  is  strongly  to  be  wished  that  works  could  be  pro- 
duced perfectly  free  from  errors;  but  this  is  almost  a  vain 
hope  while  imperfection  clings  to  humanity,  and  while  every 
form  is  exposed  to  accident  and  every  additional  proof  may 
be  productive  of  fresh  error. 


118  COMFOSINQ. 


HINTS  HONOURED  IN  THE  BREACH, 

1.  When  you  lay  a  fount  of  new  type,  don't  open  the  papers 
carefully,  and  place  the  lines  evenly  with  a  brass  rule  in  the 
cases,  nick  up;  but  show  your  skill  by  tumbling  over  each 
package  rapidly,  and  bringing  it  down  with  a  rush  on  the 
imposing-stone;  then,  roughly  throwing  the  a's  into  a  chaotic 
pile,  grab  them  uj)  by  handfuls  and  work  them  well  down  in 
the  appropriate  box.  The  harder  you  jostle  them  down,  the 
more  you  will  get  in.  Proceed  thus  with  each  letter ;  and,  if 
the  operation  has  been  vigorously  performed,  the  value  of  the 
fount  will  have  been  reduced,  say  ten  per  cent. 

2.  While  you  set  out  one  case,  let  your  galley  lie  on  the 
overheaped  type  of  another  case. 

3.  If  a  line  is  rather  too  tight  to  permit  the  last  letter  to  get 
in  easily,  push  it  down  hard  with  your  rule  or  a  quadrate. 
The  type  may  be  injured ;  but  why  didn't  it  fit  in  just  right 
at  first  ? 

4.  Empty  your  matter  at  a  gentle  inclination  on  the  galley, 
and  make  it  up  at  the  same  angle.  You  can  bring  it  right 
afterward — perhaps — by  the  energetic  application  of  mallet, 
shooting-stick,  and  planei:. 

5.  When  the  case  is  half  set  out,  shake  up  the  type  ener- 
getically, and  do  so  very  often.  The  exercise  will  strengthen 
your  muscles. 

6.  Don't  brush  off  the  stone  before  you  lay  the  matter  down. 
If  any  sand  happens  to  get  under,  the  type  will  show  its  im- 
pression beautifully  deep  and  clear  on  the  face  of  the  planer,—, 
perhaps  a  whole  word  or  two. 

7.  Don't  plane  till  the  form  is  locked  up,  as  thus  you  save 
the  trouble  of  the  first  planing.  But,  now  that  you  do  plane, 
hammer  away,  and  show  your  musical  ability  in  playing  a 
tattoo  on  the  form.  Don't  lay  the  planer  tenderly  and  lovingly 
on  the  types,  as  if  you  were  afraid  to  hurt  their  feelings,  and 
gently  tap  it ;  but  hold  it  off  about  a  quarter  or  three-eighths 
of  an  inch,  and  then  bring  down  the  mallet  with  a  will.  Phew ! 
how  the  planer  will  descend  obedient  to  the  stroke,  and  rebound 
again,  and  perhaps  again.  If  the  form  is  not  smooth  on  the 
surface  now,  it  is  not  your  fault.  Repeat  this  each  time  when 
the  form  is  locked  up,  till  it  goes  to  press ;  and  you  may  de- 
pend on  it  the  impression  will  gain  in  boldness,  if  not  in  looks. 


TO  THE  APPRENTICE,  119 

8.  When  correcting  yonr  numerous  errors,  don't  trouble 
yourself  to  lift  the  lines  carefully  at  the  ends,  but  dig  right 
into  the  head  of  the  erring  letter,  and,  resting  your  bodkin  on 
the  type  below  it,  pry  up  the  sinner :  it  does  not  n^atter  if  you 
demolish  two  or  three  types  in  the  under  line. 

9.  Wash  your  form  energetically,  and  apply  the  ley  bounti- 
fully with  a  good  stiff  wiry  brush.  Never  mind  rinsing :  clean 
type  is  an  old-fogy  notion. 

10.  When  the  type  is  out  of  use,  let  it  lie  around  promis- 
cuously,— on  a  table,  or  board,  or  any  place  where  it  will  be 
occasionally  convenient  to  lay  on  it  a  mallet  or  tin  basin.  If 
one  strip  of  matter  is  placed  on  another,  room  will  be  econo- 
mized.   Moreover,  the  under  layers  will  be  safe  from  dust. 

11  (comprehensively).  Do  every  thing  in  a  loose  way  gene- 
rally, letting  matters  go  as  they  list,  throwing  your  pi  into 
spare  boxes  or  secretly  placing  it  on  the  letter-table  or  some 
out-of-the-way  place,  stealing  sorts  from  your  neighbour, 
overcharging  time-work  and  extras,  fishing  for  fat  takes,  <fec. 

12.  If  you  observe  these  things  faithfully  and  constantly, 
and  don't  lose  your  character  and  your  situation,  why— you 
do  not  receive  your  deserts. 

TO  THE  apphentice. 

Aspiring  apprentice,  a  word  or  two  in  your  ear.  If  you 
desire  success  in  any  matter  pertaining  to  this  life  or  the 
coming,  you  must  have  a  purpose, — a  determination  that,  God 
helping  you,  you  will  achieve  success.  You  may  be  poor, 
friendless,  unknown, — your  clothing  scant,  your  stomach 
half  filled, — your  place  may  be  at  the  foot  of  the  ladder:  no 
matter.  Whatever  your  position  may  be,  do  your  duty  in  it, 
stoutly  and  perseveringly,  with  your  eye  fixed  far  ahead  and 
upward. 

Keeping  the  purpose  before  you  that  you  will  rise,  be  obe- 
dient to  your  employer,  attentive  to  your  business,  obliging 
to  your  shopmates,  and  courteous  to  strangers;  and  seize 
every  opportunity  to  improve  your  heart,  your  mind,  and 
your  workmanship.  Do  every  thing  well, — no  slighting,  no 
hiding  defects,  aiming  always  at  perfection.  Watch  those 
who  are  skilful,  and  strive  to  equal  and  excel  them.  Secure 
the  friendsliip  of  all  by  deserving  it.  Allow  no  opportunity 
of  rendering  a  service  to  pass  without  improving  it,  even  if  it 


120 


TO  THE  APPRENTICE. 


cost  you  some  labour  and  self-denial.  Be  of  use  to  others, 
even  if  in  a  small  way ;  for  a  time  may  come  when  they  may 
he  of  service  to  you.  A  selfish  man  may  get  ahead  faster  than 
you ;  but  selfishness  is  contemptible, — and  you  need  not  envy 
his  success:  when  you  achieve  your  object  nobly,  you  will 
enjoy  it,  and  be  respected. 

Always  bear  in  mind  that  character  is  capital.  To  gain 
this,  you  must  be  so  scrupulously  honest  that  you  would  be 
as  willing  to  put  live  coals  in  your  pocket  as  a  penny  that  is 
not  yours.  Never  run  in  debt:  do  without  what  you  cannot 
at  once  pay  for,  even  though  you  should  suffer  somewhat.  No 
matter  what  the  amount  of  your  earnings  may  be,  save  a  por- 
tion every  week,  and  invest  it  in  a  savings-bank  of  good  stand- 
ing: it  will  grow,  and  will  stand  you  in  good  stead  some  day. 
Better  temporary  abstinence  and  constant  plenty  afterward, 
than  unearned  present  comfort  and  future  perpetual  want. 
Never  lie,  openly  or  covertly,  by  word  or  action.  A  liar  may 
deceive  his  fellows, — God  and  himself  never.  Conscious  of 
falsity,  a  liar  can  have  no  self-respect;  without  self-respect, 
reputation  cannot  be  achieved. 

With  a  noble  purpose  as  the  end  of  all  your  actions,  and 
with  action  becoming  your  purpose,  your  success  is  merely  a 
question  of  time,— alwa^'s  provided  you  have  some  brain  and 
abundant  common  sense. 


IMPOSING,  OR  PREPARING   FOR  PRESS. 


IMPOSITION 


•I!A9p  »^^  JO  SailM 

em,su.B3«pasiso,9|qs9q 

XeraaX  ?«ii^ 'poo  JO-'""™-"' 

eiouM    em    uo    ,n,T    Ji 

pas  -pjOT  9q»  0,  <re  '»o,xi»a 

•,48101  «!4joje«o.r9H»ti. 

auiop  11!*  pooS  HMM.    I 

puB  -pjori  9,1a  a.  auoj»s  eq 

Jjjuaq 

'a9jtji9jqi<n  'XuBaij  oi 

eqi    tuoij    poo  JO  ii!«   9q, 

•raiq  mT«suosi9d  jo  ?39ds»a 

3uiOp      ■^Sliq,')     JO    «U«Ai9« 

•J»q»  Bi  J9H,.9U    1  n9i«9<(  aj 

eq,  iwinq' :8J9mi»id-u9tn  CT 

•!  Ofr|«  in«^\ii  jnoX  lem  aui 

•«!Aa»«-»X9   qii*   ,oji  9 

-uouii  :3uiU(»iBaji(,3ucjB9q 

nsuqo  <nan 

-joj  'm9q,<ntiiiBau!i(i9cm!8 

m  'wBaq  jnoX  jo  Miaue|8ats 

•q,  op  'gjaisreai  9^  'pay  g 

ai'gaiiqmaa,  pa»ai»jm!« 

•99JJ  ao  paoq  »<;  jy 

•qsag  oqi  0,  8uipjooo»  u»> 

J9qi9q«  -pjcyj  9qj  Jo  9ai83 

-CTui  MoH  axn  vt\{\  m»\^■^  o\ 

-9j  94  iinqs  amtw  eq't  'maop 

laeipoqo  oq    'maBijeg   g 

i      V.l    SXYISailJ-J 

•lA   8KYIS3IU3     9 

8     EPHESUNS   ri. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

12   For    we  wrestle   not 

pIllLDREN-,   obey  your 
v^     parents  in  the  Lord: 

against    flesh    and    blood. 

but   against  principalities. 

against  powers,  against  the 

^°2  'nonour^thy'  father  and 

rulers  of  the  darkness  of 

mother;   which  is  the  Brst 

this  world, againstspiritual 

commandment  with   pro- 

wickedness  in  high  placrt. 
13  Wherefore  taL  unto 

3   That  it  may  be  well 

you  the  whole  armour  of 
God,   that  ve  may  be  able 

with  thee,  and  thou  mayest 
live  long  on  the  earth. 

to  withstand  in  the  enl  day, 

4  And.  ye  fathers,   pro- 

and    having    done    all,    to 

Toke  not  your  children  to 

stand. 

wrath:   but  bring  them  up 

H  Stand  therefore,  hav- 

in  the  nurture  and  admo- 

ing your   loins   girt    about 

nition  of  the  Lord. 

^        with   truth,  and   haring  on 

1                5 

1 

c 


OMPREHENDS 

a  knowledge  of 
placing  the  pages  so 
that  they  may  regu- 
larly follow  each  other 
when  printed  and  the 
sheet  is  folded  up ;  and 
also  the  mode  of  dress- 
ing chases  and  the  man- 
ner of  making  the  pro- 
per margin.  As  many 
pages  as  are  required 
for  a  whole  or  half 
sheet  being  made  up, 
the  compositor  lays 
them  upon  the  im- 
I  posing -stone,  placing 
the  first  page  with  the 
signature  to  the  left 
hand  facing  him,  and 
then  proceeds  according  to  one  of  the  schemes  on  pp.  129-178. 

These  will  be  found  to  contain  every  necessary  imposition, 

viz.  folios,  quartos,  octavos,  twelves,  sixteens,  eighteens, 
twenties,  twenty-fours,  thirty-twos,  thirty-sixes,  forties,  forty- 
eights,  sixtj^-fours,  seventy-twos,  ninety-sixes,  and  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-eights.  We  also  introduce  schemes  for  im- 
posing from  the  centre,  by  which  means  the  blank  or  open 

11  121 


122  TYING  UP  PAGE^. 

pages  may  be  thrown  in  the  centre  of  the  form,  leaving  the 
solid  pages  on  the  outside  to  act  as  bearers  for  the  rollers,  as 
well  as  for  the  better  regulation  of  the  impression. 

All  odd  matter,  for  any  form,  should  be  divided  into  fours, 
eights,  twelves,  and  sixteens,  which  is  the  groundwork  of 
all  the  impositions  except  the  eighteens,  which  differ  from  all 
the  others;  for  instance,  sixteens,  twenty-fours,  and  thirty- 
twos  are  only  octavos  and  twelves  doubled,  or  twice  doubled, 
and  imposed  in  half  sheets :  for  example,  the  sixteens  are  two 
octavos  imposed  on  one  side  of  the  short  cross ;  the  twenty- 
fours  are  two  twelves  imposed  on  each  side  of  the  long  cross ; 
and  a  thirty-two  is  four  octavos  imposed  in  each  quarter  of 
the  chase.  Thus,  a  sheet  may  be  repeatedly  doubled.  By  this 
division,  any  form  or  sheet  may  be  imposed,  always  bearing 
in  mind  that  the  first  page  of  each  class  must  stand  to  the  left 
hand,  with  the  foot  of  the  page  toward  you.  Having  set  down 
the  first  page,  then  trace  the  i-emainder  according  to  the  scheme 
which  applies  to  its  number ;  in  proof  of  wliich,  the  standard 
rule  for  all  other  impositions  may  be  adopted, — namely,  the 
folios  of  tivo  pageSy  if  placed  properly  beside  each  other,  will 
make,  when  added  together,  one  more  than  the  number  of  pages 
in  the  sheet:  that  is,  in  a  sheet  of  sixteens,  pages  1  and  16  coming 
together  will  add  up  17,  and  so  9  and  8  will  make  17,  &c. 

In  half  sheets,  all  the  pages  belonging  to  the  white  paper, 
and  reiteration,  are  imposed  in  one  chase.  So  that  when  a 
sheet  of  paper  is  printed  on  both  sides  with  the  same  form, 
that  sheet  is  cut  in  two  in  the  short  cross  if  quarto  or  octavo, 
and  in  the  short  and  long  cross  if  twelves,  and  folded  as  octavo 
or  twelves. 

TYING  UP  PAGES. 

In  tying  up  pages,  use  fine  twine,  winding  it  four  or  five 
times  round  it,  and  fastening  at  the  right-hand  corner,  by 
thrusting  a  noose  of  it  between  the  several  turnings  and  the 
matter  with  the  rule,  and  drawing  it  perfectly  tight,  taking 
care  always  to  keep  the  end  of  the  cord  on  the  face  of  the  page. 
While  tying  it,  keep  the  forefinger  of  the  left  hand  tight  on 
the  corner,  to  prevent  the  page  from  being  drawn  aside. 

The  twine  being  fastened,  the  compositor  removes  the  page 
from  the  ledges  of  the  galley,  to  see  if  the  turns  of  cord  lie  about 
the  middle  of  the  shank  of  the  letter ;  if  they  lie  too  high, — as 


LAYING  PAGES,  123 

most  coramonly  they  do, — he  thrusts  them  lower ;  and  if  the 
page  be  not  too  broad,  he  places  the  fore  and  middle  finger  of 
his  right  hand  on  the  off  side  of  the  head  of  the  page,  and  his 
thumb  on  the  near;  then,  bending  his  other  fingers  under, 
he  presses  them  firmly  against  the  head  of  the  page ;  he  next 
places  the  fingers  of  his  left  hand  in  the  same  position  at  the 
foot  of  the  page,  and,  raising  it  upright,  lays  it  on  a  page- 
paper  ;  then,  with  his  right  hand  he  grasps  the  sides  ol'  the 
page  and  the  paper,  w^hich  turns  up  against  the  sides  of  the 
page,  and  sets  it  in  a  convenient  spot  under  his  frame,  placing 
it  on  the  left  hand,  with  the  foot  toward  him,  that  tlie  other 
pages  that  are  in  like  manner  set  down  afterward  may  stand 
by  it  in  an  orderly  succession  until  he  comes  to  impose 
them. 

If  the  page  be  a  quarto,  folio,  or  a  broadside,  it  is,  of  course, 
too  wide  for  his  grasp ;  and  he  therefore  carries  the  galley  and 
page  to  the  imposing-stone,  and  turns  the  handle  of  the  galley 
toward  him,  and,  taking  hold  of  the  handle  with  his  right 
hand,  he  places  the  ball  of  the  thumb  of  his  left  hand  against 
the  inside  of  the  head  ledge  of  the  galley,  to  hold  it  and  keep 
it  steady,  and  by  the  handle  draws  the  slice  with  the  page 
upon  it  out  of  the  galley,  letting  the  slice  rest  upon  the  im- 
posing-stone ;  he  then  thrusts  the  head  end  of  the  slice  so  far 
upon  it,  that  the  foot  of  the  page  may  stand  an  inch  or  two 
within  the  outer  edge  of  the  stone,  and,  placing  his  left  hand 
against  the  foot  of  the  page,  he  quickly  draws  the  slice  from 
under  the  bottom  of  the  page. 

LAYING  PAGES. 

In  taking  up  his  pages  for  imposition,  the  compositor 
tightly  grasps  the  paper  on  both  sides  of  the  page,  in  order 
that  it  may  be  kept  firm  to  the  bottom  of  the  page ;  lor  if  it  be 
left  slack,  the  letters  will  be  liable  to  slip  out,  unless  it  be  par- 
ticularly well  tied  up.  Having  conveyed  it  to  the  stone,  he 
next  places  the  last  two  fingers  of  his  right  hand  under  the 
head  of  the  page,  but  not  under  the  page-paper  at  the  head  of 
it,  still  grasping  the  sides  with  his  forefingers  and  thumb ;  he 
then  slips  his  left  hand  so  that  the  palm  ol  it  may  turn  toward 
the  bottom,  and,  lifting  the  page  upright  on  his  right  hand, 
with  the  left  he  removes  the  paper;  he  next  grasps  again  the 
foot-end  of  the  page  with  his  left  hand,  in  the  same  manner  as 


124  MAKING  UP  FURNITURE, 

tlie  right  holds  the  head  of  it,  and,  turning  the  face  of  the  type 
toward  him,  lays  it  squarely  and  quickly  down,  so  that  the 
whole  page  may  come  in  contact  with  the  face  of  the  stone  at 
the  same  time. 

As  this  method,  in  inexperienced  or  careless  hands,  would 
frequently  endanger  a  page  containing  intricate  matter,  it  will 
be  safer  to  place  the  pages  at  first  on  good,  strong,  but  not 
coarse  and  rough  papers,  and,  when  they  are  brought  to  the 
stone,  instead  of  lifting  them  up  as  just  noticed,  slide  them  off 
the  papers  in  the  same  manner  as  before  directed  respecting  a 
folio  page  on  the  slice  galley,  being  careful  that  no  particles 
of  dirt  remain  under  the  page. 

MAKING  UP  FURNITURE, 

Having  ascertained  that  his  pages  are  laid  down  right,  the 
compositor  proceeds  to  dress  the  chases,  which  we  will  sup- 
pose to  be  for  a  sheet  of  octavo.  Accordingly  he  selects  a  good 
pair  of  chases  that  are  fellows  as  well  in  circumference  as  in 
other  respects ;  and,  having  laid  them  over  the  pages  for  the 
two  difiterent  forms,  he  considers  the  largeness  of  the  paper  on 
which  the  work  is  to  be  done,  and  puts  such  gutter-sticks  be- 
tween page  and  page,  and  such  reglets  along  the  sides  of  the 
two  crosses,  as  will  give  the  book  proper  margins  after  it  is 
•  bound. 

To  ascertain  the  proper  distance,  and  to  prevent  wastage 
of  furniture,  he  takes  short  pieces  of  furniture,  or  quotations, 
and  quadrates  or  reglets,  to  fit  the  space  between  two  pages ; 
then,  pushing  the  pages  close  to  them,  he  finds  the  exact  width 
of  the  furniture  necessary,  by  trying  the  ends  of  various  pieces, 
always  measuring  from  the  edge  of  the  lines  of  type  above  the 
page-cords. 

By  observing  a  proper  method  in  cutting  up  new  furniture, 
the  same  will  be  serviceable  for  other  works  as  well  as  the  one 
for  which  it  is  intended,  even  though  the  size  of  the  page  may 
differ,  provided  it  agrees  with  the  margin  of  the  paper.  The 
gutters  should  be  cut  two  or  three  lines  longer  than  the  page ; 
the  head-sticks  wider;  the  back  furniture  may  run  nearly 
down  to  the  rim  of  the  chase,  but  must  be  level  with  the  top 
of  the  page,  which  will  admit  of  the  inner  head-stick  running 
in;  the  difference  of  the  outer  head-stick  may  go  over  the 
eide-stick,  and  the  gutter  will  then  run  up  between  them. 


MAKING  THE  MARGIN.  125 

The  side-stick  only  need  to  be  cut  exact,  and  the  furniture 
will  completely  justify. 

MAKING  THE  MARGIN 

The  next  business  is  to  arrange  the  margin,  so  that  eacli 
page  may  occupy  one  side  of  a  leaf,  and  have  the  proper  pro- 
portion of  white  paper  left  at  the  sides  as  well  as  at  the  head 
and  foot.  The  page  when  printed  should  be  a  little  higher 
than  the  middle  of  the  leaf,  and  have  a  little  more  margin  on 
the  outside  than  in  the  back. 

One  mode  of  making  margin  is  the  following : — For  octavos, 
measure  and  mark  the  width  of  four  pages  by  compasses,  on 
a  sheet  of  paper  designed  for  the  work,  beginning  to  measure 
at  one  extremity  of  the  breadth  of  the  sheet.  The  rest  of  the 
paper  divide  into  four  equal  parts,  allowing  two-fourths  for 
the  width  of  two  separate  gutter-sticks ;  the  remaining  two- 
fourths  divide  again  into  four  equal  parts,  and  allow  one- 
fourth  for  the  margin  along  each  side  of  the  short  cross,  and 
one-fourth  for  the  margin  to  each  outside  page.  But  as  the 
thickness  of  the  short  cross  adds  considerably  to  the  margin, 
reduce  the  furniture  in  the  back  accordingly-,  and  thereby  en- 
large the  outside  margin,  which  requires  the  greatest  share  to 
allow  for  the  unevenness  of  the  paper  itself,  as  well  as  for 
pressmen  laying  sheets  uneven,  when  the  fault  is  not  in  th© 
paper.  Having  thus  made  the  margin  between  the  pages  to 
the  breadth  of  the  paper,  proportion  the  margin  at  the  head, 
in  the  same  manner,  to  the  length,  and  accordingly  measure 
and  mark  the  length  of  two,  pages,  dividing  the  rest  into  four 
parts,  one-fourth  of  which  is  allowed  for  each  side  of  the  long 
cross,  and  one-fourth  for  the  margin  that  runs  along  the  foot 
of  the  two  ranges  of  pages.  The  furniture  on  both  sides  of  the 
long  one  must  be  lessened  to  enlarge  the  bottom  margin,  for 
the  reason  assigned  for  extending  the  side  margin. 

Go  the  same  way  to  work  in  twelves,  where,  for  the  outer 
margin  along  the  foot  of  the  pages,  allow  the  amount  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  breadth  of  the  head-sticks,  and  the  same  for  the 
inner  margin,  that  reaches  from  the  foot  of  the  fifth  page  to 
the  centre  of  the  groove  for  the  points ;  and  from  the  centre  of 
that  groove  to  the  pages  of  the  quire,  or  that  cut  off,  allow 
half  of  the  breadth  of  the  head-stick.  The  margin  along  the 
long  cross  is  governed  by  the  gutter-sticks ;  and  it  is  common 


126  MAKING  THE  MARGIN. 

to  put  as  much  on  each  side  of  the  long  cross  as  amounts  to 
half  the  breadth  of  the  gutter-stick,  without  deducting  almost 
any  thing  for  the  long  cross,  since  that  makes  allowance  for 
the  inequality  of  the  outer  margin. 

Another  plan,  more  simple,  is  the  following : — Having  laid 
the  pages  as  nearly  as  possible  in  their  proper  places  on  the 
stone,  with  a  suitable  chase  around  them,  fold  a  sheet  of  paper 
which  has  been  wetted  for  the  work,  or  one  of  the  same  size, 
into  as  many  portions  as  there  are  pages  in  the  form,  and, 
holding  the  sheet  thus  folded  on  the  first  or  left-hand  page  of 
the  form,  one  edge  even  with  the  left-hand  side  of  the  type, 
place  the  adjoining  page  so  that  its  left  side  may  be  even  with 
the  right-hand  edge  of  the  folded  paper,  which  will  leave  a 
suflicient  space  between  the  two  pages  to  admit  the  gutter- 
stick,  which  should  then  be  selected  of  a  proper  width  to  suit 
the  form  in  hand,  as  follows: — In  octavos,  about  a  Great 
Primer  less  in  width  than  the  space  between  the  pages,  as 
determined  by  the  above  rule;  in  duodecimos,  about  a  Pica 
less;  in  sixteens,  about  a  Long  Primer;  and  proportionably 
less  as  the  number  of  pages  are  increased.  Having  thus 
secured  the  proper  width  for  the  gutter-sticks,  cut  them  some- 
what longer  than  the  page,  and,  holding  one  of  them  between 
the  two  pages,  above  the  page-cord,  close  the  pages  up  to  it ; 
tliuu  open  the  folded  sheet  so  as  to  cover  the  two  pages,  and, 
bringing  the  fold  in  the  paper  exactly  in  the  middle  of  the 
gutter-stick,  secure  it  there  with  the  point  of  a  pen-knife  or 
bodkin ;  the  right-hand  edge  of  the  paper  thus  opened  must 
be  brought  to  the  centre  of  the  cross-bar,  which  determines 
the  furniture  required  between  it  and  the  pages.  Having  thus 
arranged  the  margins  for  the  back  and  fore  edge  of  the  book, 
proceed  in  like  manner  to  regulate  the  head  and  foot  margins, 
by  bringing  the  near  edge  of  the  folded  paper  even  with  the 
bottom  of  the  first  page,  and  so  placing  the  adjoining  off  page 
that  its  head  may  be  barely  covered  by  the  off  edge  of  the 
folded  paper,  which  will  give  the  required  head  margin.  All 
other  sections  of  the  form  must  be  regulated  by  the  foregoing 
measurements,  when  the  margins  for  the  whole  sheet  will  be 
found  correct. 

The  greater  the  number  of  pages  in  a  sheet,  the  smaller  in 
proportion  should  the  margin  be :  the  folded  paper,  therefore, 
should  lie  i3roportionally  less  over  the  edge  of  the  adjoining 
page,  both  for  gutter  and  back,  in  a  form  of  small  pages  than 


LOCKING   UP  FORMS,  127 

in  one  of  larger  dimensions.  A  folio  may  require  the  page  to 
be  half  an  inch  nearer  the  back  than  the  fore-edge ;  while  a 
duodecimo  may  not  require  more  than  a  Pica  em. 

In  imposing  jobs  where  two  or  more  of  the  same  size,  re- 
quiring equal  margins,  are  to  be  worked  together,  fold  the 
paper  to  the  size  appropriate  for  each,  and  so  arrange  the 
type  that  the  distance  from  the  left  side  of  one  page  to  the  left 
side  of  the  adjoining  one  shall  be  exactly  equal  to  the  width 
of  the  folded  paper,  as  before  described. 

Having  dressed  the  inside  of  the  pages,  next  place  side  and 
foot  sticks  to  their  outsides ;  being  thus  secured  bj^  the  furni- 
ture, untie  the  pages,  quarter  after  quarter,  the  inner  page 
first,  and  then  the  outer,  at  the  same  time  forcing  the  letter 
toward  the  crosses,  and  using  every  precaution  to  prevent  the 
pages  from  hanging  or  leaning ;  and,  in  order  to  guard  against 
accidents,  when  the  quarter  is  untied,  secure  it  with  a  couple 
of  quoins. 

LOCKING  UP  FOUMS, 

First,  carefully  examine  whether  the  pages  of  each  quarter 
are  of  the  same  length ;  for  even  the  difterence  of  a  lead  will 
cause  them  to  hang.  Test  their  exactness :  place  the  ball  of 
each  thumb  against  the  centre  of  the  foot-stick,  raising  it  a 
little  with  the  pressure,  and,  if  the  ends  of  both  pages  rise 
equally  with  the  stick,  it  is  a  proof  they  will  not  bind  ;  then  fit 
quoins  between  the  side  and  foot-stick  of  each  quarter  and  the 
chase.  After  pushing  the  quoins  as  far  as  possible  with  the 
fingers,  make  use  of  the  mallet  and  shooting-stick,  and  gently 
drive  the  quoins  along  the  foot-sticks  first,  and  then  those 
along  the  side-sticks,  taking  care  to  use  an  equal  force  in  the 
strokes,  and  to  drive  the  quoins  far  enough  up  the  shoulders 
of  the  side  and  foot  sticks,  that  the  letter  may  neither  belly 
out  nor  hang,  and  the  lines  be  kept  straight  and  even.  Quoins 
should  be  slanted  on  one  side  only,  but  the  edges  should  not 
be  bevelled.  The  several  quarters  of  the  form  should  be  par- 
tially tightened  before  either  quarter  is  finally  locked  up; 
otherwise  the  cross-bar  may  be  sprung. 

Before  locking  up  the  form,  plane  the  pages  gently  over  all 
the  face.  If  this  be  properly  done,  a  second  planing  is  hardly 
necessary,  provided  the  justification  is  perfect  and  the  pages 
are  all  of  the  same  length.  But,  as  this  is  seldom  the  case,  the 
second  planing  can  hardly  be  dispensed  with. 


128  MEMORANDA. 

It  often  occurs  that  the  quoins,  when  locked  up  wet,  stick 
so  tight  to  the  furniture  as  to  render  it  troublesome  to  unlock 
them :  in  such  cases,  drive  the  quoin  uj)  a  little,  and  it  after- 
ward unlocks  with  ease. 

Before  lifting  a  form  after  it  is  locked  up,  raise  it  gently  a 
short  distance,  and  look  under  it,  to  ascertain  whether  any 
type  are  disposed  to  drop  out.  If  all  is  right,  carry  it  to  the 
proof-press,  and  pull  a  good  proof.  Then  rub  it  over  gently 
with  a  ley-brush,  rinse  it  well,  and  place  it  in  a  rack,  and 
deliver  the  proof,  with  the  copy,  to  the  proof-reader. 

MEMORANDA, 

Each  part  of  the  furniture  should  be  in  one  piece,  where  it 
is  practicable, — as,  for  instance,  the  gutters,  the  backs,  and  the 
heads ;  but  sometimes  pieces  will  be  wanted  of  a  width  that  is 
not  equal  to  any  regular  size,  and  then  two  must  be  used. 

All  the  gutters  of  one  sheet  should  be  cut  of  a  precise  length ; 
so  also  with  the  backs  and  the  heads ;  but  each  sort  should  be 
of  a  different  length  from  that  of  the  others :  thus  they  would 
be  easily  distinguished  from  each  other,  and  mistakes  would 
be  prevented. 

The  sheet  being  imposed,  the  stone  should  be  cleared ;  the 
saw  and  saw-block  put  in  their  places,  the  shears,  the  mallet, 
planer,  and  shooting-stick,  the  surplus  furniture,  the  leads, 
the  quoins,  and  every  other  article.  The  compositor  will  tie 
up  his  page-cords,  and,  if  he  has  any  companions,  will  return 
to  them  their  proportion. 

The  chase  and  furniture  of  one  form  should  always  be  used 
for  a  similar  form  ;  that  is,  the  chase  and  furniture  of  the  outer 
form  should  be  again  used  for  an  outer  form,  and  the  chase 
and  furniture  of  the  inner  form  should  be  again  used  for  an 
inner  form ;  they  should  also  be  put  round  the  pages  in  the 
same  order  in  which  they  were  put  about  those  of  the  pre- 
ceding forms.  For  want  of  care  or  thought  in  these  apparently 
trifling  circumstances,  trouble,  inconvenience,  and  loss  of  time 
■^Irequently  occur;  for  the  register  will  be  almost  sure  to  be 
wrong  when  this  is  neglected,  and  then  the  forms  must  be 
unlocked  and  the  leads  changed,  to  correct  the  fault. 


IMPOSITION. 


129 


' 

Abstract  Title-Deeds  of  Estates. 

I 

Abstract     Title 

Deeds  of  Estates  are 

printed  with  blanks 

at  the  back,  with  all 

the  margin  on  the  left 

^           1 

side,    and  on  single 

leaves,     which     are 

stitched  together    at 

Ji           o 

the  corner. 

•?          W 

This   method  of 

imposing  the  form  is 

to    save    press-work 

and  the  compositor's 

charge. 

1 

z 

A  Single  Sheet  of  Polio. 

Inner 

Form, 

z 

8 

1 

4 

/ 

Outer 

Form, 

r^' 

A 

130 


IMPOSITION. 


Two  Sheets  of  Polio,  Quired,  or  lying  one  in  another. 

Outer  Form  of  the  Outer  Sheet, 

1       '  ' 


Outer  Form  of  the  Inner  Sheet, 

6 


Imposing  in  quires  may  be  carried  to  any  extent,  by  ob- 
serving the  following  rule: — first  ascertain  the  number  of 
pages,  then  divide  them  into  so  many  sheets  of  folio,  and 
commence  laying  down  the  first  two  and  last  two,  which 
form  the  first  sheet,  and  so  on  to  the  centre  one,  always  re- 
membering that  the  odd  pages  stand  on  the  left  and  the  even 
on  the  right ;  the  folios  of  each  two  forming  one  more  than 
the  number  of  pages  in  the  work :  for  example,  let  us  sup- 
pose the  work  to  consist  of  thirty-six  pages,  which  is  nine 
sheets  of  folio,  then  they  should  be  laid  down  according  to 
the  scheme  at  the  foot  of  the  opposite  page. 


p 


IMPOSITION, 


131 


Two  Sheets  of  Folio,  Quired,  or  lying  one  in  another. 

Inner  Form  of  the  Outer  Sheet, 

7  Mi  2 


Inner  Form  of  the  Inner  Sheet, 

5         I     M  4 


o 


1  36 

7  30 
13  24 


35  2,  1st 
29  8,  Ath 
23  14,     1th 


O 

P 


3  34      33    4,     2d 

9  28     27  10,    5th 

15  22      21  16,     8th 


O 


GO 


5  32  31  6,  3d 
11  26  25  12,  6th 
17  20      19  18,    9th 


The  furniture  must  be  reduced  in  the  backs  of  the  inner 
sheets,  to  allow  for  stitching. 


132 


IMPOSITION. 


A  Sheet  of  Oommon  Quarto. 


Outer  Forin. 


A 


of  Quarto,  the  Broad  Way,  commonly  used 
in  Works  of  Music. 

I 


Outer  Form. 


IMPOSITION, 


133 


A  Sheet  of  Oommoii  Quarto. 


Inner  Form. 


A  Sheet  of  Quarto,  the  Broad  Way,  commonly  used 
in  "Works  of  Music. 


Inner  Form, 


12 


134 


IMPOSITION, 


Two  Half-Sheets  of  Quarto,  worked  together. 


Outer  Form, 


Half  a  Sheet  of  Oommon  Quarto. 


IMPOSITION. 


135 


Two  Half  Sheets  of  Quarto,  worked  together. 


.Inner  Fartn, 


Half  a  Sheet  of  Quarto,  the  Broad  "Way. 


136 


IMPOSITION. 


buter  Porm  of  a  Sheet  of  Oommon  Octavo. 


16 


13 


Outer  rorm  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  the  Broad  Way. 


CO    I  1    r-H 


00  J         I  '-t  <\ 


IMPOiSITION, 


137 


Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Common  Octavo. 


ei 


10 


Inner  Porm  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  the  Broad  Way. 


i 


w. 


12* 


138 


IMPOSITION. 


Outer  Porm  of  Two  Half-Sheets  of  Oommon  Octavo, 
worked  together. 


Half  a  Sheet  of  Oommon  Octavo. 


9       j  8 


r 


IMPOSITION. 


139 


Inner  Porm  of  Two  Half-Sheets  of  Common  Octavo, 
worked  together. 


Two  Quarters  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  worked  together. 


140 


IMPOSITION, 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  12  of  the  Work, 
and  4  of  other  Matter. 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  of  Hebrew  Work. 


t-T 


16 


IMPOSITION. 


141 


Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  12  of  the  Work, 
and  4  of  other  Matter. 


"1 


Inner  Porm  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  of  Hebrew  Work. 


IT 


14 


142 


IMPOSITION, 


Outer  Porm  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  Imposed  from 
tlie  Centre. 


Z\ 


1.J 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Octavo,  Imposed  from  the  Centre. 


7 

2 

1           1 

8 

i 

IMPOSITION. 


143 


Inner  Porm  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  Imposed  from 
tlie  Centre. 


01 

1 
\ 

9 

u 

■ 

15 

2 

3 

• 

14 

Two  Quarters  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  Imposed  from 
the  Centre. 


r 


144 


IMPOSITION. 


^\     \^ 


O 

pi 


02 


H 
^ 


< 


g 


<1 

CD 


IMPOSITION, 


145 


13 


146 


IMPOSITION, 


U2 


H 

^ 


OO  \       f  CD 


o 


IMPOSITION, 


147 


^  \      <  ^ 


^2  I     I  Oi 

1     $ 


B 
B 


CD 
ro     i         CD 


-  -^ 


i3  I      oi 

1    I 


> 


1-3 


o 
pi 


148 


IMPOSITION, 


J 


»f^      J  I      T-.  ^ 


EZZIL_Z] 


< 


Si 


o 


CfQ 


t?' 


IMPOiSITION, 


149 


I  >- 


O)  (N 


U2 


H 
^ 


K)  \  00 


<       1 


CO  I        JO 


ISj      2 


Li 


B 
»t3 


o 

B 

CD 


la* 


150 


IMPOSITION 


Outer  Porm  of  a  Sheet  of  Long  Twelves. 


o 


One-tMrd,  or  8  pages,  of  a  Sheet  of  Twelves. 
To  be  imposed  as  a  slip,  or  in  the  off-cross. 


1 


1 


FoTtn.] 


IMPOSITION, 


151 


Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Long  Twelves. 


CO 

0^ 

1                        '^ 
i 

in 

5 

i 1 

o 

i 

Oi 

3 

00 

i 

?5 

One-third,  or  8  pages,  of  a  Sheet  of  Twelves. 
To  be  imposed  as  a  slip,  or  in  the  off-cross. 


3    j 

6 

7 

2 

a2 

Inner 

Form. 

152 


IMPOSITION, 


^ 


CJb 


;  <^ 


o 
W 


H 

^ 


t 


o 


cr<5 


IMPOSITION, 


153 


K) 

\ 1 

>          ^ 

00 

^^,.,.V1*«/^,.,.X,. 

Oi 

Oi 

00 

2 

154 


IMPOSITION, 


is„>^,^ 

< 

1 

CO 

i^^.. 

0\\  ICM 


ocj        jo^ 


tOi 


1 00 


i 


",  ^  > 


t3- 


1  F 


Jv^xxx^ 

i 

; 

Sco 
pi 

1 

Si 


io 


J 


O 

CO 

I-"- 


IMPOSITION. 


155 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Eighteens.^ 
Containing  16  pages. 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Eighteens.t 


rrn 


17    1 


*  The  white  paper  of  this  half-sheet  being  worked  off,  the  centre  pages  muMt 
be  transposed, — viz.  pages  7  and  10  in  the  room  of  9  and  8,  and  pages  9  and  8 
in  the  phice  of  7  and  10 :  when  this  is  done,  your  imposition  will  be  true. 

f  When  the  white  paper  is  worked  off,  transpose  the  form, — viz.  pages  11 
and  8  in  the  room  of  7  and  12,  and  pages  7  and  12  in  the  place  of  11  and  8 : 
this  being  done,  the  sheet  will  then  fold  up  right. 


156 


IMPOSITION, 


Outer  Porm  of  a  Sheet  of  Eighteens,  to  be  folded 
together. 


\    5 


32 


^^■V^^^^V^^*?  fw^-W^W^^^  ty 


t  1     i  se 


j  8S  I 


36  25 


i J 


17  1  20 


H 


91 


13  24 


Outer  Porm  of  a  Sheet  of  Eighteens,  with  One  Signature. 
i 


I  OTJ  \!Z\       \   9S  \ 


r  1 


Z2 


36  I  33 


III  \  oz\      I  l\ 


I j     j      j 


14 


IMPOSITION, 


157 


Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Eighteens,  to  be  folded 
together. 


19  1  18 


SSj 


'   23  ■ 


91  i   01 


11 


SO 


31    I        i    6    \ 


\   LZ  \ 


f'S 


26 


Inner  Porm  of  a  Sheet  of  Eighteens,  with  One  Signature. 


1  n 


13  S  24   I  3    1 


a3 


^Z  8r, 


T8  \  08 


34 


35   \ 


14 


158 


IMPOSITION 


Outer  Porm  of  a  Sheet  of  Eighteens,  with  Two 
Signatures. 


Z\ 


1  81   ^       1  91 


OS 


6    I 


I™LI 


1    \ 


24 


\  12 


B      ^  I  ^ 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Eighteens,  with  Three 
Signatures. 


1 

A 


12  \ 


\         ^1       f         \ 


\   t 


1  m 

1  1 

J 

12 

IMPOSITION. 


159 


Inner  Porm  of  a  Sheet  of  Eighteens,  with  Two 
Signatures. 


or 


11  f 


Sa 


\  9    \       \  01 

i i        i. 


1  r 


.JJ   L  ^  ^ 


1    rr\ 

a2 


\  61  i 


22 


tT 


11 


81 


^    \ 


n 


Inner  Porm  of  a  Sheet  of  Eighteens,  with  Three 
Signatures. 


!  z^ 


s  \ 


z^ 

9  \ 


IIIA  \ 


A 


11   \  \    2 


OT 


11 


\       \  Z^  \ 


160 


IMPOSITION, 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Eighteens,  without  Transposition.- 


I    I    \       I  81   j 


91  \ 


12 


,. 


Z^ 


ei 


01 


11 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Twenties,  with  Two  Signatures. 


W        ''^  i    i   ^ 

1           *^ 

CO            G^ 

Oo         i^ 

: 
00 

O          :     — ' 

^     1  <^ 

^        1 

.||. 

1           i:^        "SO 

^ 

V    _.| 

*  This  mode  of  imposition  is  very  objectionable,  as  there  will  be,  when  the 
paper  is  cut  up,  three  single  leaves. 


IMPOSITION. 


161 


Inner  Porm  of  a  Sheet  of  Twenties. 


[___ll  \lJ\ 


L 


Ci   I    I   CO 


CO 


1  '^  \ 


-A\-- 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Twenties. 


^            00 

K)   1        CO 

►f^  :         CO 

.—            CO 

{         

l\ 

;^j  [f I  |j^ j 


S!iS5 


14* 


162 


IMPOSITION. 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Twenty-Pours. 


Z'lJ  [SI  I  [91]  !    6  I 


li  1 


iOT   j  IGl   1  I^T 


IT 


6T  J  L8LJ  1  Jl 
22I  123  1  12 


Outer  Porm  of  a  Sheet  of  Twenty-Pours,  with 
Two  Signatures. 


;  Z\  1  S  8T  i  i  91 


:    6 


n  [241  T^r  r  4 


98  I  UsJ  jOI-  j  1  88 


'  ^^S  1  LILJ  f  ^^  1  1  6S 


:  25 

B 


48 


'45  i  128 


IMPOSITION. 


163 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Twenty- Pours,  the  Sixteen-way. 


8J  [ZM  [Og^ 


1    1    n  '^4  M  21 


91  n  6 


6  1  I  13  n  12 


ill         ! 
LlJ  LiLJ  LiLi 

r-n  \T^\  \W 


Inner  Porm  of  a  Sheet  of  Twenty-Pours,  with 
Two  Signatures. 


^e  i  \  68 


1  ?•* 


108  j  j  St  1  UtJ  j  T8  j 

1^1  rjel  ufl  \W 


\    1 

9   j  J6LJ  j  8T  j  j.Z 
rri  [221  [231  ,^™ 


164 


IMPOSITION, 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Twenty-Pours,  without  Inset. 


1 


1  1 


161 

I 


2.    !  181 


6  I  rr9i  s 22 


Jj  jQgJ  Ul 


I I  f  a2 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Twenty-Pours,  without  Inset. 


j  8T  j  isgj  L5§J  L6Li 


6  J  LiLJ  La 


16]  i  13  1  i  4 


jog  j  j  Ig  j  \}Z\  \  L\ 


9^  I  LLLJ  LfijJ  La, 

f^n  rm  rrr?  rr 


IMPOSITION, 


165 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Twenty-Fours,  mthout  Cutting 

fT] TW\  jTr] rri     i  iw \.^\\i9 w  e 

UlJL 


t    h  I?'-  hoT  I  1.6 


J    A. 


TPi     14  S  1231  i    2 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Thirty-Twos. 


2Z  \  \    9 


13  I  I  20 1  I  21  1  {TPi 


Z^  08 


\  11 

\  a6 


T9i  \  14 


.9IJ  lilJ  j  IgJ  MS 

rn  n2]  psi  [^ 


7  I  j  26]  I  31 

i   \ 1   i \  i i 


166 


IMPOSITION. 


Outer  Porm  of  a  Sheet  of  Thirty-Twos. 


t'    I  1 19 J  i  98  i  tS^J 

451  r^oi 


I   13  j  I  52 
a7 


[5  I  I  2( 


L9LJ  LSLi  L^Li  L-AI. 

\  \  rw\  rw\  r32" 


I 


{       n       ^ 


1 8s  n  Z8  n  09  Li_ 

»^'>v».»»-vv»         »-»^.v^.,i,-»>.»^         »^»-«.<~<~»vv        W«.'»i<.'«,.»w4 


21 


1  rT^i 


44  i  1  5: 


|i¥l 


^^  '  Ul      L9gJ      6 


i  L^^J  ^ J  L, 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Thirty-Twos,  with  Pour  Sigs. 


i 


Loii  U9J  L^'  h§J 


55  I  I  58  i  !  59  i  !  54 


IUlIU 


161  113  {  I   4 


I  I  ^ 

8f  I  I  88  1 


ef^i 


7  i  1  44  f  RTS  1  40 


^^  i  U^  i  I  9r,  n  8?; 


19  I  [30]  1  311  !   18 


IMPOSITION, 


167 


Inner  Porm  of  a  Sheet  of  Thirty-Twos. 


9   i  S  6G  !  i  88  i  Lii 


11  n  54  n  43 


22  1 


1 08  n  ^8  N  e^9  i  I  8 


19  n  46n  5U  1  14 


Vw-^^^vw^-v^ 


31   I  [^34l  \W\  r"2 


!0T   j  L££j  ULJ  LM 
■Tl  f58]  f39]  f26^ 


Inner  Porm  of  a  Sheet  of  Thirty-Twos,  with  Four  Sigs. 


?^^ 


r—i  — 

Liii  ulJ  imI  LilJ 


39  I  I  42  I  j43i  !  38 


— . 


i  t^  I  i  er,  1  i  8r^  i    t^^ 


17 

B 


32  n  29  H  20 


191  L19 


a 


53  n  60  i      57  i  !  56  i 


9   M  11 


r \ 


I  3    11  14  I  I   15]  I    2 
II        II        i  I 


168 


IMPOSITION. 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Thirty-Twos,  with  Two  Signatures, 
r — 1 


81  n  TS  i     08      161 


23  I  pel  [27  I  I  22  I 


sJ  LeJ  1^  Lx 


A 


pr 


,5^i  J-ALJ 


6S 


1  28  I  [25  f  ?  24 

UUL 


9    i  111 


0[ 


\   I 


y«>^i'^.'«i^^^W«         ^^i^t.^'^.^b^^t.'k^         •v^'^^t.'t^.^v^.w^  v*x«^«-v« 

FTl     14        15  n    2 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Thirty-Twos,  20  pages  of  the  Work, 
4  pages  of  Title,  &c.,  and  8  of  other  Matter. 

^^p-j 

T I !  0^  j  lalI 


ILi  iJlLl  L£J  LL 


rri  1 6 


h^\ 


^  \\z\\\  ^ 


9j  [nj  LoM  La 


141  i   15 


1 1 


IMPOSITION. 


169 


d 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Thirty-Sixes. 


ur~~\ 


E 


[J  [£^1 1^  ] 


ir ! 


3t 


Q 


i  E™  J  f. 


^1 


L  J  Ld  LJ 


ED 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Thirty-Sixes,  without  Gutting. 


oo 

— 1 

.!1 

•~0                             00       c^ 

!— •            1                  OO:      iC 

jo:)          j              4^      CO 
CO                             -a:       ^ 

JO:       =" 

1    s  j; 

GO 

§1 

15 


170 


IMPOSITION, 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Thirty-Sixes,  with  Two  Signatures. 


>     — 

ao 

CD 
\ J 

1-     1  '^       1 

^ 

c      1 

►^ 

lO 

i      t- 

1 

1 

G^ 

00 

CO 

z 1 

^ 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Porties. 


Tl  fsel  1^31  r 8^1 

\ \  \ I 


81 J  ijrj  uy  isL 
i~  fsT]  1^  r^ 

'        L 


,91 J  j  9Z\  [s?i\  Ul 
Tl  1^^  f29l  \W 
a2 


ij  I  40  I  I  37  I  I   4    I 

^ i   i i   t  i 


^    . 


IZ 


11   i  i  30  I  S  31 


9^J  L?l 

10 


39  n  2  ! 


IMPOSITION. 


171 


A  Quarter- Sheet  of  Porty-Eights,  with  Two  Signatures, 

1 


5         i  \         '  i.         \ 


I 


\  81   1  1  8S  \  U^J  i  61 


\(^'^'  \\\o\\\Z 


I  S^l 


l\ 


n  TBI  fiT 


e  1 


r 

^  J  I  Hi  j.OT   j  U 
14  I  {15]  [2 

'J i 


A  Half  S'leet  of  Forty-Eights,  with  Two  Signatures. 


Z   \     9Z 


ZZ  i  \   8 


7  1  risl  iTF]  re 


? 1 

<  Til  v^\  mh  r^o 
L 


9Z  \     if 


l9^ 


^ze^ 


^^31  \  S"42l  M3l  rSO 


35  \  rSsl  fST]  I  34 


;S1  J  [9lJ  1  6    1 


ULi 


I  zi  j  S  o^^vj  i  g 

[Tl  124  !  \2{  \l    4 


U8  J  L.oL 


LM| I 


OR 


25     I  48     i  45      !  28 


\f\  in 


f>Z 


B    5 


172 


IMPOSITION, 


A  Quarter-Sheet  of  Porty-Eiglits,  without  Cutting. 

181  [T^  Pel 


20  i  i  17 


n  r2ll  [TTl  fiF 

A 


11 1 1 14  i  S23 1  rri 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Porty-Eights,  with  Three  Signatures. 


l9l  !l2l  1*431  ITs 


\ 


81  i  i  T8  i  j  08  j  I  61 


23  n  26  n  27  i  1  22 


n 


6  J  LMi  Li 

IS  i  16 1  f  131  r4 


Uli  UlJ  btJ  LSL. 

?^^  pTj  m  pfT] 


I 1 1 \  \ ] 

2SJ  L§Li  L  J 


i\  \ 


2ii  pq  pn  m 


9  n  U  !  lOT 


3^  nT]  {  15  11  2 


IMPOSITION. 


173 


A  Commoii  Quarter-Sheet  of  Porty- Eights. 


kl  IUt  I  1^1  H   T) 


'\^\  \  r 


i  OT  !  i  ei  \\\\  i  1  If 


Lis 


^^^^^. 


9    I  \i\\   \  jgT  j  S   Z 


\    o.\\  22 


23  I  r  2 


A  Quarter-Sheet  of  Sixty-Pours,  with  Two  Signatures. 


08J  Lfil 

23  S  i  26  i  i  2fl  !  22 


'i  r^ — n 
'  •    a   j 


06  j  LQ?  i  i  68  j  LJJJ 


21  I  !  28  I  1  251 


1         i 


24 


r      ^ 


loll  r.i  W  ^  \ 


pi  1  I  i6l  I  13^  M 


^^  p 


9  M  1 


iOl 


14     i  15 


m 


15* 


174 


IMPOSITION, 


A  Oommoii  Quarter-Sheet  of  Sixty-Pours. 


A§J  loe 


r 

TT]  rsoi  r2i  f  112 


^  i  \ i 


iTTI  f  22l  1  19  n   14  1 


jgij  [8^  L§iJ  111 


A  Quarter-Sheet  of  Sixty-Pours,  20  pages  of  the  Work, 
8  of  Title,  and  4  of  other  Matter. 


pin  mm [20 


1  6  i  I  e;T  11   9 


1    H  16  i  M3 

A 


z    I  j         I  I    V 

tA  Lz:  J  biil  Li 

iv 


19  \  jis]  1   V 

i      \ 


5 \ 


IT 


T\  \u] 


15  i  i  2 


IMPOSITION, 


175 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Sixty-Pours. 


nnnn 


-tiJ  Lid  L§iJ  Ui 

Tl  r  62 1  !  35  !  r?5 
L 


n 


96  i  S  68  I  I  89 


23  H  42 


L 

10  1 


55  1 


^'^^  i  UlJ  Li§J  1  n 


27  !  i  38 i  !  59 


i   6 


l±J  j   19  1  \9?.  \  Mj^^ 

S^TF]  \W\  uSl  [20^ 


9T  i  SjjJLi  LSLi  Uii 

r^n  1*611  r^n  r^ 


^rj  UfJ  J09      j    9   I 


te; 


99     i    6  I 


25  I  I  40|  {  57  I  I  8  1 


t.x....J      ^ (       I 


176 


IMPOSITION, 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Seventy-Twos,  witli  Three  Signatures. 


P       — 
Lljsl  tJ  11 


^  To 


[ 


C^A     {go 

^\   jo 


cr.     p? 


00|     jiO 


col 


E 


o     o 


^    \'p 


— ^ 


ioo  I 


^    \o^x 


E 


F"j  n  F~i 


[HO 


^  ^ 


rz — 1  r 

CO  J    5 


ol    I- 


J 

^1 


IMPOSITION. 


177 


Lr„l 


\J^\   jr.. J 


J       i 


IZD  Ej 


I  -i  L£J 


i  f 


1         1         ODJ 


i^  1  r  ^1 


i  ^^ 


i^l  L£j  Q 


bO    {         ]    Oi 


ra  mi  13 


,  i   rzr 


•I  V 


I  ^i  i^  \  I 


H-     I 


]  r 


Llj 


W 


5' 
CD 

I 

CQ 

I-'- 
M 

CD 
oa 

& 

CQ 

I 


^J       [_^ 


1^  i  i  -» 1 


ri«i 


178 


IMPOSITION. 


BED 

QE3 

[3  Ell 
CZlEHCllE] 


L^J 


00  M  c^ 


2_i  i.r^...  ,^ 


r~ii 


jg  1  Lll  LU 
Ejllllili 

fi""j  fTj  fil 

ltIDl3][D 


io 


Li™iLLiil„i 


i        CO   { 


s  I  fa» 


-.1   ?    <    rs»         » 


to   i     S    CO 


filF 


"  iLJ 


[3  ED 


ED 


CO  J    i  u:) 


LrJLU 


^         o 


111  ED  Lll  [O 


t3- 


o 

CD 


PJ 


td 

^ 


^^Ll 


CD   J     i   CO 


L  <^  n J 


=  is 


L.-=_ 


Ld  ED  LU  liU 
E?D  0 


I  L_E-i  IS 


§  i  J  ^ts 


J 


PROOF-READING  AND   CORRECTING. 


PROOF-BEAniNG. 


7JNDENIABLE  as  is  the  fact 
that  a  book  marred  by  typo- 
graphical errors  and  gram- 
matical blemishes  is  a  scandal 
to  the  profession,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  a  careful,  steady, 
and  competent  reader  is  indis- 
pensable in  every  printing- 
office. 

It  is  eminently  desirable 
that  a  reader  should  have 
been  previously  brought  up 
a  compositor.  By  a  practical 
acquaintance  with  the  me- 
chanical departments  of  the 
business,  he  will  be  better  able  to  detect  those  manifold  errata 
which,  unperceived  by  the  man  of  mere  learning  and  science, 
lie  lurking,  as  it  were,  in  a  thousand  different  forms,  in  every 
sheet;  and  which,  if  overlooked,  justly  offend  the  taste  and 
discernment  of  all  appreciators  of  correct  and  beautiful 
typography. 

Some  of  the  principal  imperfections  which  are  more  easily 
observed  by  the  man  of  practical  knowledge  in  the  art  of  print- 
ing are  the  following:  viz.  imperfect,  wrong-founted,  and  in- 
verted letters,  particularly  the  lower-case  n,  o,  s,  and  the  u,  as 
well  as  p,  d,  b,  and  q;  awkward  and  irregular  spacing;  un- 
even pages  or  columns;  a  false  disposition  of  the  reference 

179 


180  PROOF-HEADING, 

marks ;  crookedness  in  words  and  lines ;  bad  making-up  of 
matter ;  erroneous  indention,  &c.  Tliese  minutise,  which  are 
rather  imperfections  of  workmanship  than  literal  errors,  are 
apt  to  be  overlooked  and  neglected  by  mere  literary  readers. 

Long  and  frequent  habits  of  reading  proof-sheets  for  the 
press,  a  quick  eye,  and  a  steady  mind,  will  certainly  enable  a 
person,  though  not  a  compositor,  to  detect  those  minor  devia- 
tions from  correctness  which  the  inexperienced  and  the  care- 
less are  apt  to  overlook.  But,  while  these  habits  are  acq^Uiring, 
without  which  no  person  can  be  safely  intrusted  to  read  a 
sheet  for  press,  the  labours  of  the  printer  are  liable  to  go  forth 
into  the  world  in  a  manner  that  will  reflect  discredit  on  the 
employed  and  give  offence  to  the  employer.  No  form,  there- 
fore, ought  to  be  put  to  press  until  it  has  been  read  and  revised 
by  an  experienced  reader. 

A  first-class  proof-reader,  in  addition  to  a  general  and  prac- 
tical acquaintance  with  typography,  should  understand  clearly 
the  grammar  and  idiomatic  structure  of  his  mother-tongue, 
and  have,  as  it  were,  an  encyclopedic  knowledge  of  the  names, 
times,  and  productions  of  its  writers,  as  well  as  a  thorough 
familiarity  with  the  Bible  especially,  and  with  Shakspeare. 
He  should  be,  in  fact,  a  living  orthographical,  biographical, 
bibliographical,  geographical,  historical,  and  scientific  dic- 
tionary, with  some  smattering  of  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin, 
French,  Spanish,  Italian,  and  German.  Yet  all  these  accom- 
plishments are  valueless  unless  he  also  possess  a  keen  and 
quick  eye,  that,  like  a  hound,  can  detect  an  error  almost  by 
scent.  There  are  eyes  of  this  sort,  that  with  a  cursory  glance 
will  catch  a  solitary  error  in  a  page.  The  world  is  little  aware 
how  greatly  many  authors  are  indebted  to  a  competent  proof- 
reader for  not  only  reforming  their  spelling  and  punctuation, 
but  for  valuable  suggestions  in  regard  to  style,  language,  and 
grammar, — thus  rectifying  faults  which  would  have  rendered 
their  works  fair  game  for  the  petulant  critic. 

Although  no  corrector  of  the  press  can  strictly  be  required 
to  do  otherwise  than  to  follow  his  copy, — that  is,  faithfully  to 
adhere  to  the  original,  with  all  its  defects, — yet  every  one  must 
perceive  that  he  performs  a  friendly,  and  perhaps  a  charitable, 
service,  by  pointing  out,  in  proper  time,  imperfections  and 
mistakes  which  have  escaped  the  observation  of  a  quick  or 
voluminous  writer.  With  the  spirit,  the  opinions,  the  whims 
of  an  author,  no  corrector  of  the  press  has  any  business  to 


PROOF-READING,  181 

interfere.  In  reprints  of  old  and  standard  works,  no  license 
of  alteration  ought  to  be  granted  to  either  correctors  or  editors. 

Strict  uniformity  should  always  be  preserved  in  the  use  of 
capitals,  in  orthography,  and  punctuation.  Nothing  can  be 
more  vexatious  to  an  author  than  to  see  the  words  honour ^ 
favour,  <fec.  spelt  with  and  without  the  u.  This  is  a  discre- 
pancy which  correctors  ought  studiously  to  avoid.  The  above 
observations  equally  apply  to  the  use  of  capitals  to  noun- 
substantives,  &c.  in  one  place,  and  the  omission  of  them  in 
another.  However  the  opinions  of  authors  may  differ  in  these 
respects,  still  the  system  of  spelling,  &c.  must  not  be  varied 
in  the  same  work. 

When  an  author  gives  him  the  option,  a  proof-reader  ought 
to  spell  ambiguous  words  and  arrange  compounds  in  a  me- 
thodical and  uniform  way ;  and,  to  enable  the  compositors  to 
become  acquainted  with  and  to  observe  his  method,  he  should 
furnish  for  their  guidance  a  list  of  such  ambiguous  words  and 
compounds. 

Such  being  the  qualifications  of  a  reader,  we  exhibit  the 
process  which  proof-sheets  ought  to  undergo  before  the  pages 
are  put  to  press. 

When  a  first  proof  is  pulled,  the  compositor  who  imposed 
the  sheet  ought  to  collect  and  arrange  the  copy,  and  deliver 
both  to  the  reader,  who,  after  folding  the  sheet  to  prove  the 
accuracy  of  its  imposition,  carefully  examines  the  signatures, 
head-lines,  and  paging.  He  then  calls  his  reading-boy,  to 
read  the  copy  aloud  to  him.  This  boy  should  be  able  to  read 
with  ease  and  distinctness  any  copy  put  into  his  hands.  The 
eye  of  the  reader  should  not  follow,  but  rather  precede,  the 
voice  of  the  boy ;  accustomed  to  this  mode,  he  will  be  able  to 
anticipate  every  single  word  in  the  copy ;  and,  should  a  word 
or  sentence  happen  to  be  missing  in  the  proof,  his  attention 
will  the  more  sensibly  be  arrested  by  it  when  he  hears  it  pro- 
nounced by  his  reading-boy.  He  ought  to  be  careful  lest  his 
eyes  advance  too  far  before  the  words  of  the  boy ;  because,  in 
his  attention  to  the  author's  meaning,  he  will  be  apt  to  read 
w^ords  in  the  proof  which  do  not  actually  appear  there,  and 
the  accuracy  of  the  reading-boy  will  but  tend  to  confirm  him 
in  the  mistake. 

When  the  reading  of  the  sheet  is  concluded,  the  number 
(if  more  than  one)  of  the  volume,  signature,  and  prima,  or  first 
word  of  the  ensuing  sheet,  should  be  accurately  marked  on 

16 


182 


PROOF-READING, 


the  margin  of  the  copy,  and  a  bracket  made  before  the  first 
word  of  the  next  sheet,  in  order  that  the  compositor,  should 
he  not  have  composed  beyond  the  sheet,  may  know  where  to 
begin,  without  having  the  trouble  of  referring  either  to  the 
proof  or  the  form,  and  the  reader  will  be  certain  that  the  com- 
mencement is  right  when  he  gets  the  succeeding  sheet.  This 
prevents  unnecessary  trouble  both  to  the  reader  and  com- 
positor. 

Before  the  proof  is  sent  to  the  compositor  to  be  corrected  in 
the  metal,  an  entry  should  be  made  in  a  book,  according  to 
the  following  jdan : — 


Date  of 
reading. 

Signa- 
tures. 

Names  of  Works. 

Sent  out. 

Returned. 

Read  for 

Press. 

1865. 

May  2 
»     4 
"     6 

"     7 

11 

82 

20 

2 

Decorative  Printing... 
Quarto  Bible 

1865. 
May  2 

»     4 

"     7 
"     8 

1865. 
May  4 

"     5 

"     8 
"      9 

1865. 
May  5 

"     6 
"     8 
"     9 

American  Printer 

Life  of  Prescott 

This  account  being  punctually  kept,  the  reader  can  furnisli 
the  emi^loyer  or  overseer  with  an  exact  account  of  the  state  of 
each  work,  without  delay  or  inconvenience. 

After  the  compositors  have  corrected  the  errors  in  the  form, 
a  clean  proof  is  pulled,  which,  with  the  first  i3roof,  is  handed 
to  the  reader,  who  then  collates  the  corrected  sheet  with  the 
one  before  read,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  the  corrections 
have  been  properly  made,  and  whether  new  errors  have  not 
been  caused  by  negligence  in  the  process ;  and,  if  the  work  be 
a  reprint,  or  if  the  author  is  not  to  examine  the  proof,  he  then 
proceeds  to  read  it  very  carefully  for  press. 

Some  proofs  are  so  foul,  that  it  is  almost  impossible  for  the 
compositor  to  correct  all  the  marks  at  one  time,  and  it  is 
therefore  necessary  to  have  the  neglected  errors  corrected  and 
another  sheet  pulled  before  the  proof  is  read  finall5^  It  not 
unfrequently  happens  that  compositors,  in  the  course  of  cor- 
recting, transpose  a  letter  or  word,  or  alter  a  letter  in  a  word 
that  is  not  marked,  thus  not  only  leaving  one  error  uncor- 


PROOF-BEADING.  183 

rected,  but  also  making  another ;  sometimes  also,  in  respacing 
a  line,  a  space  is  transposed  or  a  hyphen  is  left  in.  Conse- 
quently it  is  absolutely  necessary,  in  revising  a  proof,  that  the 
reader  should  not  only  look  at  the  word  marked,  but  he  ought 
also  to  glance  his  eye  over  every  line  in  which  an  alteration 
has  been  made. 

In  offices  where  two  readers  are  employed,  it  is  advisable 
that  a  proof-sheet  should  be  read  over  by  both;  because  the 
eye,  in  traversing  the  same  ground,  is  liable  to  be  drawn  into 
mistake  and  oversight.  The  interest  excited  by  the  first  read- 
ing having  abated,  a  degree  of  listlessness  imperceptibly  steals 
upon  the  mind,  which  greatly  endangers  the  correctness  of  a 
proof.  Should  outs  or  doubles  occur  in  a  proof,  it  ought  to  be 
again  read  by  copy,  to  detect  any  improper  correction  in  the 
overrunning  or  transposition  of  lines. 

The  duty  of  amending  the  punctuation  should  be  generally 
confined  to  one  reader.  Where  a  compositor  is  liable,  in  this 
particular,  to  the  whim  or  caprice  of  several  readers,  he  cer- 
tainly suffers  injustice,  because  his  time  is  unnecessarily  frit- 
tered away ;  and  not  only  is  the  work  retarded,  but  the  types 
are  needlessly  exposed  to  injury,  to  say  nothing  of  the  liability 
of  creating  fresh  errors,  cfcc. 

Before  a  manuscript  is  brought  to  the  printer,  it  ought  to  be 
as  perfect  as  the  author  can  make  it.  The  compositor  is  bound 
to  "follow  the  copy,"  in  word  and  sentiment,  unless,  indeed, 
he  meets  with  instances  of  wrong  punctuation  or  false  gram- 
mar (and  such  instances  are  not  rare),  which  his  intelligence 
enables  him  to  amend.  After  the  matter  has  been  read  and 
corrected  in  the  office,  a  proof  is  sent  to  the  author ;  and,  if  it 
corresponds  with  the  copy,  the  compositor's  responsibility  is 
at  an  end.  He  has  done  all  he  is  paid  for;  and,  should  the 
author  desire  any  changes  made  in  his  matter,  of  course  he 
must  pay  for  them. 

Sentiments  in  print  look  marvellously  different  from  the 
same  ideas  in  manuscript;  and  we  are  not  surprised  that 
writers  should  wish  to  polish  a  little;  nor  do  we  object  to 
their  natural  desire  of  amending  or  beautifying  their  mental 
products.  But  let  them  not  forget  that  pay-time  will  come, — 
when  the  item  for  alterations  will  loom  out  with  a  startling 
distinctness  in  their  bill.  They  found  it  easy  in  the  proof  to 
erase  a  word  or  two  here  and  insert  a  word  or  two  there; 
without  dreaming,  perhaps,  that  in  consequence  of  these  little 


184  PMOOF-READING, 

erasures  and  insertions  the  compositor  would  be  compelled 
to  alter  and  reconstruct  much  of  his  work.  We  know  of  a 
volume  on  which  the  alterations  alone  have  consumed  time 
equal  to  one  man's  work  for  nearly  two  and  a  half  years. 
How  unreasonable — nay,  how  transparently  unjust — the  ex-  ^ 
pectation  that  the  printer  should  give  gratuitously  the  time 
and  trouble  requisite  for  the  radical  changes  in  the  type  which 
an  author's  whim  or  taste  may  demand ! 

Stower  says,  ''  It  may  not  be  improper,  in  this  place,  just  to 
take  notice  of  the  great  danger  to  the  correctness  of  a  work 
which  arises  from  the  practice,  too  common  with  some  authors, 
of  keeping  their  proof-sheets  too  long  in  their  hands  before 
they  are  returned  to  the  printer.  As  the  pages  in  the  metal 
get  dry,  the  adhesion  of  the  types  to  each  other  is  weakened, 
and  the  swell  or  extension  of  the  quoins  and  furniture,  which 
the  moisture  had  occasioned,  is  removed;  so  that  there  is 
great  danger  of  letters  falling  out  when  a  form  is  long  kept 
from  the  press.  Nor  is  the  danger  which  is  hereby  occasioned 
to  correctness  the  only  inconvenience:  the  impatience  of 
authors  to  see  their  works  in  a  fit  state  for  publication  is 
almost  proverbial.  The  pleasure  arising  from  beholding,  as 
it  were,  the  *  form  and  texture'  of  one's  thoughts,  is  a  sensa- 
tion much  easier  felt  than  described.  That  authors,  therefore, 
may  partake  of  this  pleasure  in  a  speedy  and  regular  suc- 
cession, they  should  make  a  point  of  forwarding  their  proof- 
sheets  to  the  printer  as  quick  as  possible,  not  only  that  they 
may  the  sooner  be  got  ready  for  the  press,  but  that  the  work 
may  proceed  in  a  regular  manner,  without  being  interrupted 
by  the  forwarding  of  otiier  works  in  lieu  of  that  the  proof- 
sheets  of  which  are  detained  beyond  the  proper  time  in  the 
hands  of  the  author. 

"  Authors  are  very  apt  to  make  alterations,  and  to  correct 
and  amend  the  style  or  arguments  of  their  works,  when  they 
first  see  them  in  print.  This  is  certainly  the  worst  time  for 
this  labour,  as  it  is  necessarily  attended  with  an  expense 
which,  in  large  works,  will  imperceptibly  swell  to  a  serious 
sum ;  when,  however,  this  method  of  alteration  is  adopted  by 
an  author,  the  reader  must  always  be  careful  to  read  the 
whole  sheet  over  once  more- with  very  great  attention  before  it 
is  finally  put  to  press. 

"A  proof-sheet  having  dulj'-  undergone  this  routine  of 
purgation,  may  be  supposed  to  be  as  free  from  errata  as  the 


PROOF-READING.  185 

nature  of  the  thing  will  admit,  and  the  word  '  Press'  may  be 
written  at  the  top  of  the  first  page  of  it.  This  is  an  important 
word  to  every  reader :  if  he  have  suffered  his  attention  to  be 
drawn  aside  from  the  nature  of  his  proper  business,  and  errors 
should  be  discovered  when  it  is  too  late  to  have  them  cor- 
rected, this  word  *  Press'  is  as  the  signature  of  the  death-war- 
rant of  his  reputation.  A  reader,  therefore,  should  be  a  man 
of  one  business, — always  upon  the  alert, — all  eye, — all  atten- 
tion. Possessing  a  becoming  reliance  on  his  own  powers,  he 
should  never  be  too  confident  of  success.  Imperfection  clings 
to  him  on  every  side.  Errors  and  mistakes  assail  him  from 
every  quarter.  His  business  is  of  a  nature  that  may  render 
him  obnoxious  to  blame,  but  can  hardly  be  said  to  bring  him 
in  any  very  large  stock  of  praise.  If  errors  escape  him,  he  is 
justly  to  be  censured ;  for  perfection  is  his  duty.  If  his  labours 
are  wholly  free  from  mistake, — which  is,  alas!  a  very  rare 
case, — he  has  done  no  more  than  he  ought,  and,  consequently, 
can  merit  only  a  comparative  degree  of  commendation,  in 
that  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  be  more  successful  in  his 
labours  after  perfection  than  some  of  his  brethren  in  the  same 
employment." 

The  form  being  finally  laid  on  the  press,  and  a  revise  pulled 
by  the  pressman,  he  sends  it  to  the  overseer,  who  carefully 
examines  whether  all  the  marks  have  been  attended  to,  and 
looks  along  the  sides  and  heads  of  the  respective  pages,  to  ob- 
serve whether  any  letter  has  fallen  out,  any  crookedness  in 
the  locking  up  of  the  form,  any  battered  letters,  or  any  bite 
from  the  frisket.  Should  the  revise  prove  faultless,  he  returns 
it  to  the  pressman,  with  the  word  *' Revise"  written  on  the 
margin ;  if  otherwise,  to  the  compositor  to  whom  the  form 
belongs,  for  immediate  correction. 

TYPOGRAPHICAL  MARKS  EXEMPLIFIED, 

The  following  table  of  proof-marks  will  be  appreciated  by 
authors.  Due  attention  to  the  explanations  will  insure  an  apt 
proficiency  in  the  manual  department  of  proof-reading. 

16* 


186  TYPOGRAPHICAL  MARKS. 

^    I     Though   a  ve^riety   of   opinions   exist   as   to 
the  individual  by  wx(om  the  art  of  printing  was        / 
first  discovered ;   yet  all  authorities  concur  in 
admitting  Peter   Schoeffer  to  be  the  persons  (2P    . 
who  invented  cast  metal  types,  having  learned  ^ 

^  the  art -of-  of  cutting  the  letters  from  the  Gut- 
^;  /  tembergsy  he  is  also  supposed  to  have  been 
6^     the  first  whoengraved  on  copper  plates.     TheV-/ 

following  testimony  is  preseved  in  the  family,  8     i 
9v-^     by^^Jo.^^Fred.^^Faustus,     of^^^Aschefifenburg : 
^^Q  >'  Peter    Schoeffer,    of    Gernsheim,    perceiving    ^^  ^^ 
11  \y     his  master   Fausts  design,  and  being  himself  ^'  ^(yii^ 
^2^^   fdesirous\ardentl^  to   improve  the  art,  found 
out    (by   the    good    providence   of   God)    the 

13 

method   of    cutting    (ineidcndi)   the    characters     ^^/. 
in   a  matrix,  that   the   letters   might  easily  be 
^//    singly   cast  I    instead  of   bieng    cut.      He    pri- ^^^^' / 
^*|        vately   cut    matrices]    for    the  whole    alphabet:  ai5 
Faust  was    so    pleased   with   the   contrivanp<^ 
/that  he   promised  Peter  to  give  him  Ins'^nly     'Zi^^. 
16  /daughter    Christina    in    marriage    aXpromise3    ^    / 
/^l^ich  he  soon  after  performed^A^  jg 

^^  a^)!  C^^*    there   were    many   dijffiLCulties    at    first     ^^    || 

with   these    letters,   as   the;re    had   been   before  ^  ^^o7n. 
20  _i_    "with  wooden   ones,  t)te  metal  being   too   soft^^^^^^ 
to  support  the  fojX^  of  the  imTpression :   but  9  ^^  / 
this    defect   wscs    soon    remedied,    by    mixing 

3  /     "^  ^  .  12 

a  substance  with  the  metal  which  sufficiently  ^. 


EXEMPLIFIED.  187 

Though  a  variety  of  opinions  exist  as  to 
the  individual  by  whom  the  art  of  printing  was 
first  discovered  ;  yet  all  authorities  concur  in 
admitting  PETER  SCHOEFFER  to  be  the 
person  who  invented  cast  metal  types^  having 
learned  the  art  of  cutting  the  letters  from  the 
Guttembergs :  he  is  also  supposed  to  have  been 
the  first  who  engraved  on  copper-plates.  The 
following  testimony  is  preserved  in  the  family, 
by  Jo.  Fred.  Faustus,  of  AschefFenburg : 

'  Peter  Schoeffer,  of  Gernsheim,  perceiv- 
ing his  master  Pauses  design,  and  being  him- 
self ardently  desirous  to  improve  the  art,  found 
out  (by  the  good  providence  of  God)  the 
method  of  cutting  (incidendi)  the  characters  in 
a  matrix^  that  the  letters  might  easily  be  singly 
cast,  instead  of  being  cut.  He  privately  cut 
matrices  for  the  whole  alphabet:  and  when  he 
showed  his  master  the  letters  cast  from  these 
matrices,  Faust  was  so  pleased  with  the  con- 
trivance, that  he  promised  Peter  to  give  him 
his  only  daughter  Christina  in  marriage,  a 
promise  which  he  soon  after  performed.  But 
there  were  as  many  difficulties  at  first  with 
these  letters,  as  there  had  been  before  with 
wooden  ones,  the  metal  being  too  soft  to  sup- 
port the  force  of  the  impression :  but  this  defect 
was  soon  remedied,  by  mixing  the  metal  with 
a  substance  which  sufficiently  hardened  it.' 


188  TYPOGRAPHICAL  MARKS 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  CORRECTIONS. 

A  wrong  letter  in  a  word  is  noted  by  drawing  a  short  per- 
pendicular line  through  it,  and  making  another  short  line  in 
the  margin,  behind  which  the  right  letter  is  placed.  (See  No.  1.) 
In  this  manner  whole  words  are  corrected,  by  drawing  a  line 
across  the  wrong  word  and  making  the  right  one  in  the  margin 
opposite. 

A  turned  letter  is  noted  by  drawing  a  line  through  it,  and 
writing  the  mark  No.  2  in  the  margin. 

If  letters  or  words  require  to  be  altered  from  one  character 
to  another,  a  parallel  line  or  lines  must  be  made  underneath 
the  word  or  letter, — viz.  for  capitals,  three  lines ;  small  capi- 
tals, two  lines ;  and  Italic,  one  line ;  and,  in  the  margin  oppo- 
site the  line  where  the  alteration  occurs.  Cops,  Small  Caps,  or 
Ital.  must  be  written.    (See  No.  3.) 

When  letters  or  words  are  set  double,  or  are  required  to  be 
taken  out,  a  line  is  drawn  through  the  superfluous  word  or 
letter,  and  the  mark  No.  4  placed  opposite  in  the  margin. 

Where  the  punctuation  requires  to  be  altered,  the  correct 
point,  marked  in  the  margin,  should  be  encircled.   (See  No.  5.) 

When  a  space  is  omitted  between  two  words  or  letters  which 
should  be  separated,  a  caret  must  be  made  where  the  separa- 
tion ought  to  be,  and  the  sign  No.  6  placed  opposite  in  the 
margin. 

No.  7  describes  the  manner  in  which  the  hyphen  and  ellipsis 
line  are  marked. 

When  a  letter  has  been  omitted,  a  caret  is  put  at  the  place 
of  omission,  and  the  letter  marked  as  No.  8. 

Where  letters  that  should  be  joined  are  separated,  or  where 
a  line  is  too  widely  spaced,  the  mark  No.  9  must  be  placed 
under  them,  and  the  correction  denoted  by  the  marks  in  the 
margin. 

Where  a  new  paragraph  is  required,  a  quadrangle  is  drawn 
in  the  margin,  and  a  caret  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sen- 
tence.   (See  No.  10.) 

No.  11  shows  the  way  in  which  the  apostrophe,  inverted 
commas,  the  star  and  other  references,  and  superior  letters 
and  figures,  are  marked. 

Where  two  words  are  transposed,  a  line  is  drawn  over  one 
word  and  below  the  other,  and  the  mark  No.  12  placed  in  the 
margin;  but  where  several  words  require  to  be  transposed, 


EXEMPLIFIED,  189 

their  right  order  is  signified  by  a  figure  placed  over  each  word, 
and  the  mark  No.  12  in  the  margin. 

Where  words  have  been  struck  out  that  have  afterward 
been  approved  of,  dots  should  be  marked  under  them,  and 
Stet  written  in  the  margin.     (See  No.  13.) 

Where  a  space  sticks  up  between  two  words,  a  horizontal 
line  is  drawn  under  it,  and  the  mark  No.  14  placed  opposite, 
in  the  margin. 

Where  several  words  have  been  left  out,  they  are  tran- 
scribed at  the  bottom  of  the  page,  and  a  line  drawn  from  the 
place  of  omission  to  the  written  words  (see  No.  15) ;  but  if  the 
omitted  matter  is  too  extensive  to  be  copied  at  the  foot  of  the 
page,  Out^  see  copy^  is  written  in  the  margin,  and  the  missing 
lines  are  enclosed  between  brackets,  and  the  word  Out  is  in- 
serted in  the  margin  of  the  copy. 

Where  letters  stand  crooked,  they  are  noted  by  a  line  (see 
No.  16) ;  but,  where  a  page  hangs,  lines  are  drawn  across  the 
entire  part  affected. 

When  a  smaller  or  larger  letter,  of  a  different  fount,  is  im- 
properly introduced  into  the  page,  it  is  noted  by  the  mark 
No.  17,  which  signifies  wrong  fount. 

If  a  paragraph  is  improperly  made,  a  line  is  drawn  from 
the  broken-off  matter  to  the  next  paragraph,  and  No  \  written 
in  the  margin.     (See  No.  18.) 

Where  a  word  has  been  left  out  or  is  to  be  added,  a  caret 
must  be  made  in  the  place  where  it  should  come  in,  and  the 
word  written  in  the  margin.     (See  No.  19.) 

Where  a  faulty  letter  appears,  it  is  marked  by  making  a 
cross  under  it,  and  placing  a  similar  one  in  the  margin  (see 
No.  20) ;  though  some  prefer  to  draw  a  perpendicular  line 
through  it,  as  in  the  case  of  a  wrong  letter. 

CORRECTINO  IN  THE  METAL, 

Correcting  is  the  most  disagreeable  part  of  a  compositor's 
business,  diminishing  as  it  does  his  earnings,  and  causing 
great  fatigue,  and,  by  leaning  over  the  stone,  prejudicing  his 
health.  A  foul  proof,  however,  is  a  fault  without  extenuation, 
and  seems  to  deserve  some  punishment.  The  noise  and  con- 
fusion which  prevail  in  badly  governed  printing-offices,  from 
light  and  frivolous  conversation,  not  only  retard  business,  but 
distract  the  attention  of  the  compositor  from  the  subject  he  has 


190  CORRECTING  IN  THE  METAL, 

in  hand,  and  cause  him  to  make  many  mistakes.  Some  men, 
no  doubt,  can  support  a  conversation  and  at  the  same  time 
compose  correctly ;  but  their  noise  confuses  those  who  are  un- 
able to  preserve  accuracy  except  by  close  attention  to  their 
copy  in  silence. 

The  first  proof  should  contain  merely  the  errors  of  the  com- 
positor ;  but  it  frequently  happens  that  the  corrector  heightens 
them  by  his  peculiarities,  When  this  is  unnecessarily  done, 
it  is  an  act  of  injustice  to  the  compositor:  it  is  sufficient  for 
him  to  rectify  such  mistakes  as  arise  either  from  inattention 
to  his  copy  or  want  of  judgment.  The  compositor  ought  not 
to  suffer  from  the  humour  of  a  reader  in  capriciously  altering 
commas  and  semicolons  m  the  first  proof  (unless  the  sense  is 
perverted),  which  he  not  unfrequently  re-alters  in  the  second, 
from  a  doubt  as  to  the  propriety  of  the  points  to  be  adopted. 

When  a  proof  is  handed  to  the  compositor,  he  should  im- 
mediately correct  it ;  and  the  reader,  correlatively,  should  be 
equally  prompt  in  his  department.  Can  it  reasonably  be  ex- 
pected that  the  compositor  will  feel  inclined  to  forward  his 
proof,  when  he  knows  that  the  reader  will  delay  it  for  hours  ? 

Should  a  compositor  have  transposed  two  or  more  pages, 
either  from  an  error  in  the  folios  or  any  other  cause,  he  must 
unlock  the  quarter  containing  them,  and,  loosening  the  cross 
or  crosses  from  the  furniture,  he  lifts  the  chase  and  the  remain- 
ing quarters  off  the  stone.  Should  he  have  furniture  sufficient 
round  each  page,  he  may  move  them  into  their  proper  stations 
by  pressing  the  balls  of  his  thumbs  and  fingers  against  the 
furniture  at  the  head,  foot,  and  sides  of  each  page.  If  the  let- 
ter be  small,  it  will  be  advisable  to  wet  the  pages,  because  few 
imposing-stones  are  horizontal,  or  so  steady  that  they  will  not 
shake  when  touched,  or  by  the  motion  of  the  floor,  occasioned 
by  persons  walking  or  dragging  forms. 

Should  a  compositor  find  that  his  pages  hang,  he  must  un- 
lock the  quarter,  and  pat  the  face  of  the  type  with  the  balls  of 
his  fingers  until  he  gets  it  into  a  square  position. 

When  a  compositor  unlocks  a  form,  he  should  be  careful 
not  to  leave  the  unlocked  quoins  too  slack,  as  the  force  neces- 
sary to  loosen  the  others  may  squabble  the  matter,  or  occasion 
it  to  hang. 

A  compositor  should  possess  the  following  requisites  before 
he  begins  to  correct : — 

**  What  is  required  of  a  compositor  when  he  goes  about  cor- 


CORRECTING  IN  THE  METAL.  191 

reeling  a  foul  proof,  is  a  sharp  bodkin  and  patience ;  because, 
without  them,  the  letter  cannot  escape  suffering  by  the  steel, 
and  hurrying  will  not  permit  him  to  justify  the  lines  true. 
No  wonder,  therefore,  to  see  pigeon-holes  in  one  place,  and  pi 
in  another."* 

When  the  compositor  has  as  many  corrections  between  the 
thumb  and  forefinger  of  his  left  hand  as  he  can  conveniently 
hold,  or,  what  is  better,  in  his  composing-stick  (beginning  at 
the  bottom  of  the  page,  in  order  that  they  may  follow  regu- 
larly), and  an  assortment  of  spaces  on  a  piece  of  paper,  or, 
what  is  more  convenient,  in  a  small  square  box  with  parti- 
tions in  it, — let  him  take  the  bodkin  in  his  right  hand,  and, 
instead  of  raising  each  letter  he  may  have  to  alter,  place  the 
point  of  the  bodkin  at  one  end  of  the  line,  and,  with  the  fore- 
finger of  his  left  hand  against  the  other,  raise  the  whole  line 
sufficiently  high  to  afford  him  a  clear  view  of  the  spacing ;  he 
may  then  change  the  faulty  letter  and  alter  his  spacing  be- 
fore he  drops  the  line.  By  this  method  he  will  not  injure  the 
type,  which  he  must  do  if  he  force  the  bodkin  into  their  sides 
or  heads ;  a  greater  degree  of  regularity  is  insured  where  there 
may  be  occasion  to  alter  the  spacing,  and  no  more  time  is 
taken  up  than  by  the  other  method. 

In  tables,  and  other  matter,  where  rules  prevent  the  lines 
from  being  raised,  the  letters  must  be  drawn  up  by  the  bodkin ; 
this  is  done  by  the  compositor  holding  the  instrument  fast  in 
his  right  hand,  with  the  blade  between  his  forefinger  and 
thumb  within  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  from  the  point : 
thus  guiding  it  steadily  to  the  faulty  letter,  he  sticks  the  point 
of  the  bodkin  into  the  neck  of  the  letter  between  the  beard 
and  the  face,  and  draws  it  up  above  the  other  types,  so  that  he 
can  take  it  out  with  the  forefinger  and  thumb  of  his  left  hand. 
In  performing  this  operation,  the  blade  of  the  bodkin  should 


*  The  following  epitaph  was  no  doubt  written  by  a  printer  while  performing 
the  most  disagreeable  task  attendant  on  his  profession : — 
No  more  shall  copy  bad  perplex  my  brain, 
No  more  shall  type's  small  face  my  eyeballs  strain ; 
No  more  the  proors  foul  page  create  me  troubles, 
By  errors,  transpositions,  outs,  and  doubles : 
No  more  my  head  shall  ache  from  authors'  whims, 
As  overrunnings,  driving-outs,  and  ins ; 
The  sturdy  pressman's  frown  I  now  may  scoff. 
Revised,  corrected,  finally  wrought  off. 


192  CORRECTING  IN  THE  METAL. 

be  kept  as  flat  as  possible  on  the  face  of  the  type,  but  it  should 
not  touch  any  of  the  surrounding  types,  as  the  slightest  graze 
imaginable  will  injure  their  face,  and  they  will  consequently 
appear  imperfect  in  the  next  proof,  when  he  will  have  the 
trouble  of  altering  them,  his  employer  suffering  the  loss  of 
the  type. 

The  bodkin  blade  being  held  almost  flat  to  the  form,  a  small 
horizontal  entrance  of  its  point  into  the  neck  of  the  letter  will 
raise  it  above  the  face  of  the  form ;  but,  if  the  bodkin  be  held 
nearly  upright,  it  will  not  have  sufficient  purchase  to  draw  the 
letter  up,  because  the  weight  of  the  type  and  its  close  confine' 
ment  will  have  greater  power  than  the  sharp  point  of  the  steel. 
By  pressing  sidewise,  the  bodkin  blade  acts  as  a  lever,  even 
though  it  has  no  other  purchase  than  the  slight  motion  of  the 
hand. 

The  most  careful  compositor  cannot  at  all  times  avoid 
leaving  a  word  out,  or  composing  the  same  word  twice. 
When  this  happens,  he  should  consider  the  best  mode  of  recti- 
fying the  accident,  by  driving  out  or  getting  in,  either  above 
the  error  or  below  it.  This  ascertained,  let  the  matter  be 
taken  upon  a  galley,  and  overrun  in  the  composing-stick. 
Overrunning  on  the  stone  is  an  unsafe,  unworkmanlike,  and 
dilatory  method,  destroying  the  justification,  and  rendering 
the  spacing  uneven. 

In  correcting,  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  hair-spacing  a 
line,  by  overrunning  either  back  or  forward.  In  overrunning 
the  matter,  the  division  should  be  used  as  little  as  possible ; 
•  for,  though  the  compositor  may  carefully  follow  the  instruc- 
tions laid  down  in  this  work  on  the  subject  of  spacing  and 
dividing,  yet  the  effect  of  his  attention  will  be  completely  de- 
stroyed if  not  followed  up  at  the  stone. 

We  here  emphatically  remark  that,  if  authors  were  careful 
to  spell  properly  the  names  of  persons  and  places,  technical 
and  scientific  terms,  &c.,  and  to  write  legibly,  marking  the 
end  of  sentences  clearly,  the  work  of  the  compositor  would  be 
facilitated,  many  errors  would  be  prevented,  and  time,  tem- 
per, and  expense  greatly  economized. 

Further.  Let  us  remind  authors  that  every  correction  made 
on  their  proof  that  is  a  variation  from  the  copy  as  furnished  to 
the  printer  is  charged  for  according  to  the  time  required  to 
make  it.  The  justice  of  the  charge  is  obvious ;  yet,  strange  to 
say,  there  is  probably  no  item  so  frequently  disputed  by  pub- 


TABLE  OF  SIQNATUBES.  193 

lishers.  A  man  employs  a  mechanic  to  build  a  house  accord- 
ing to  fixed  specifications ;  but,  in  the  course  of  its  erection,  he 
improves  or  changes  the  plan,  and  orders  certain  portions  to 
be  torn  down  and  rebuilt:  is  the  mechanic  to  bear  the  loss? 
Certainly  not.  So,  when  a  compositor  builds  up  his  page  of 
type  according  to  the  copy  furnished,  he  is  right  m  requiring 
compensation  for  alterations  made  in  it.  He  is  not  to  suffer 
for  the  author's  desire  to  improve  his  intellectual  edifice. 


TABLE  OF  SIGNATURES, 

On  the  two  following  pages  will  be  found  a  complete  list  of 
t5ignatures  for  books  in  octavo,  twelves  and  eighteens,  six- 
£eens,  and  twenty-fours. 

The  24mo  signatures  in  this  table  are  arranged  to  bring  the 
second  signature  on  either  the  9th  or  17th  page  of  the  form. 
If  the  slieet  is  to  be  folded  as  an  8vo  and  16mo,  the  figure  sig- 
natures may  be  used;  but  if  as  two  12mos,  the  letter  signa- 
tures will  be  used. 


17 


194 


COMPLETE  TABLE 


8vo. 

12mo.  and 

I 

1 

A 

481 

61 

3L 

I 

1 

A 

313 

27 

2B 

9 

2 

B 

489 

62 

3M 

5 

1* 

A2 

317 

27* 

2B2 

17 

3 

C 

497 

63 

3N 

13 

2 

B 

325 

28 

20 

25 
33 

4 
5 

D 
E 

505 
513 

64 
65 

30 
3P 

17 

2* 

B2 

329 

28* 

202 

41 

49 

6 

F 

521 

66 

3Q 

a5 

3 

C 

337 

29 

2D 

7 

G 

529 

67 

3R. 

29 

3* 

C2 

341 

29* 

2D2 

57 

8 

H 

537 

68 

3S 

37 

4 

D 

349 

30 

2E 

65 

9 

I 

545 

69 

3T 

41 

4* 

D2 

353 

30* 

2E2 

73 

10 

K 

^P 

70 

3U 

49 
53 

5 

E 

361 

31 

2F 

81 
89 

11 
12 

L 
M 

569 

71 

72 

3V 
3W 

5* 

E2 

365 

31* 

2F2 

97 
105 

13 

N 

577 

73 

3X 

61 

6 

F 

373 

32 

2G 

14 

0 

585 

74 

3Y 

65 

6* 

F2 

377 

32* 

2G2 

113 

15 

P 

593 

75 

3Z 

73 

7 

G 

385 

33 

2H 

121 

16 

Q 

601 

76 

4A 

77 

7* 

G2 

389 

33* 

2H2 

129 

17 

R 

609 

77 

4B 

85 

8 

H 

397 

401 

34 

21 

137 
145 

18 
19 

S 
T 

617 
625 

78 
79 

4C 
4D 

89 

8* 

112 

34* 

212 

153 

20 

u 

633 

80 

4E 

97 

9 

I 

409 

35 

2K 

i6i 

21 

V 

6^r 

81 

4F 

lOI 

9* 

12 

413 

35* 

2K2 

169 

22 

W 

649 

82 

40 

109 

10 

K 

421 

36 

2L 

177 

23 

X 

657 

83 

4H 

"3 

10* 

K2 

425 

36* 

2L2 

185 

24 

Y 

665 

84 

41 

121 

11 

L 

433 

37 

2M 

193 

25 

Z 

673 

85 

4K 

125 

11* 

L2 

437 

37* 

2M2 

201 

26 

2A 

681 

86 

4L 

209 
Z17 

27 

2B 

689 

87 

4M 

133 

12 

M 

445 

38 

2N 

28 

2C 

697 

88 

4N 

137 

12* 

M2 

449 

38* 

2N2 

225 

29 

2D 

705 

89 

40 

145 

13 

N 

457 

39 

20 

233 

30 

2E 

713 

90 

4P 

149 

13* 

N2 

461 

39* 

202 

241 

31 

2P 

721 

91 

4Q 

157 

14 

0 

469 
473 

40 

2P 

249 

32 

2G 

729 

92 

4R 

161 

14* 

02 

40* 

2  P  2 

257 

33 

2H 

737 

93 

4S 

265 

34 

21 

745 

94 

4T 

169 

15 

P 

481 

41 

2Q 

273 

35 

2K 

753 

95 

4U 

173 

15* 

P2 

485 

41* 

2Q2 

281 

36 

2L 

761 

96 

4v 

181 

16 

Q 

493 

42 

2R 

289 

37 

2M# 

769 

97 

4W 

18S 

16* 

Q2 

497 

42* 

2R2 

297 

38 

2N 

777 

98 

4X 

193 

197 

17 

R 

505 
509 

43 

2S 

305 
313 

39 
40 

20 
2P 

785 
793 

99 
100 

4Y 
4Z 

17* 

R2 

43* 

2S2 

32.1 

41 

2Q 

801 

101 

5A 

205 

18 

S 

517 

44 

2T 

329 

42 

211 

80Q 

102 

5B 

209 

18* 

S2 

521 

44* 

2T2 

337 

43 

2S 

817 

103 

50 

217 

19 

T 

529 

45 

2U 

345 

44 

2T 

825 

104 

5D 

221 

19* 

T2 

533 

45* 

2U2 

353 
361 
369 

45 
46 
47 

2U 
2V 
2W 

833 
841 

849 

105 
106 
107 

5E 
5F 
5G 

229 
233 

20 
20* 

U 
U2 

541 
545 

46 

46* 

2V 
2V2 

377 

48 

2X 

857 

108 

511 

241 

21 

V 

553 

47 

2W 

385 

49 

2Y 

865 

109 

51 

245 

21* 

V2 

557 

47* 

2W2 

393 

50 

2Z 

873 

110 

5K 

253 

22 

W 

565 

48 

2X 

401 

51 

3A 

881 

111 

5L 

257 

22* 

W2 

569 

48* 

2X2 

409 

52 

3B 

889 

112 

5M 

265 

23 

X 

577 

49 

2Y 

417 

53 

3C 

897 

113 

5N 

269 

23* 

X2 

581 

49* 

2Y2 

425 
433 
441 

54 
55 

56 

3D 
3E 
3F 

905 

913 
921 

114 
115 
116 

50 
5P 

5Q 

277 
281 

24 

24* 

Y 
Y2 

589 
593 

50 
50* 

2Z 
2Z2 

449 

57 

3G 

929 

117 

5R 

289 

25 

Z 

601 

51 

3A 

457 

58 

3H 

937 

118 

5S 

293 

25* 

Z2 

605 

51* 

3A2 

465 

59 

31 

945 

119 

5T 

301 

26 

2A 

613 

52 

3B 

473 

60 

3K 

953 

120 

5U 

305 

26* 

2A2 

617 

52* 

3B2 

OF  SIGNATUBES, 


195 


625 
629 
6j7 
641 
649 
653 
661 
665 
673 
677 
685 
689 
697 
701 
709 
713 
721 
725 

731 
737 
745 
749 

757 
761 

769 
773 
781 
785 
793 
797 
805 
809 

817 
821 

829 
833 
841 
845 

853 
857 
865 
869 

877 


893 
901 
905 

913 
917 

925 
929 


53  3C 
53*   3C2 

54  3D 
54*   3D2 

55  3E 
55*   3E2 

56  3F 
56*   3F2 

57  3G 
57*   3G2 

58  3H 
58*   3H2 

59  31 
59*   312 

60  3K 
60*   3K2 

61  3L 
61*   3L2 

62  3M 
62*   3M2 

63  3N 
63*   3N2 

64  30 
64*   302 

65  3P 
65*   3P2 

66  3Q 
66*   3Q2 

67  3R 
67*   3R2 

68  3S 
68*   3S2 

69  3T 
69*   3T2 

70  3U 
70*   3U2 

71  3V 
71*   3V2 

72  3W 
72*   3W2 

73  3X 
73*   3X2 

74  3Y 
74*  3Y2 

75  3Z 
75*   3Z2 

76  4  A 
76*   4A2 

77  4B 
77*   4B2 

78  4C 

78*   4C2      I 


17 
33 

i^ 
65 

81 
97 

"3 

129 

145 

161 
177 
193 

209 

225 
241 

257 
273 
289 

305 
321 

337 
353 
369 

385 
401 

417 
433 
449 
465 
481 
497 
513 
529 

545 
561 

577 
593 
609 
625 
641 
657 
673 
689 
705 
721 
737 
753 
769 

785 
801 
817 
833 
849 
865 
881 
897 
913 
929 
945 


10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

26  2  A 

27  2  B 

28  2  C 

29  2D 

30  2  E 

31  2  P 

32  2  G 
3:3  2  11 
:34  21 
35    2  K 


2L 
2M 


38  2  N 

39  2  0 

40  2  P 

41  2  Q 

42  211 

43  2  S 

44  2  T 

45  2  U 

46  2  V 

47  2W 

48  2  X 

49  2  Y 

50  2  Z 

51  3  A 

52  3B 

53  3  C 

54  3D 

55  3  E 

56  3  P 

57  3  G 

58  3  H 

59  31 


97 
105 

"3 
121 
129 
137 
145 
153 
161 

169 

177 
185 

193 

201 
209 
217 
225 
233 
241 
249 
257 
265 
273 
281 
289 
297 
305 

313 
321 

329 

337 
345 
353 
361 
369 
377 
385 
393 
401 

409 
417 
425 


1     A 
1* 
A  2 

433 
441 

449 

19        T 

19* 

T2 

2     B 
2* 
B2 

465 
473 

20        U 

20* 

U2 

3     C 
3* 
C2 

481 
489 
497 

21        V 

21* 

V2 

4     D 
4* 
D2 

505 
513 

521 

22        W 

22* 

W  2 

5     E 
5* 
E2 

529 
537 
545 

23        X 

23* 

X2 

6     P 
6* 
P2 

553 
569 

24        Y 

24* 

Y2 

7     G 
7* 
G2 

577 
58s 
593 

25        Z 

25* 

Z2 

8     H 
8* 
H2 

601 
609 
617 

26     2  A 

26* 

2A2 

9     I 
9* 
12 

625 
633 
641 

27     2B 

27* 

2B2 

10     K 
10* 
K2 

649 
657 
665 

28     2C 

28* 

2C2 

11     L 

11* 
L2 

673 
681 
689 

29     2D 

29* 

2D2 

12     M 

12* 

M2 

697 
705 
713 

30     2E 

30* 

2E2 

13     N 

13* 

N2 

721 
729 
737 

31      2F 

31* 

2F2 

14     0 
14* 
0  2 

745 
753 
761 

32     2G 

32* 

2G2 

15     P 
16* 
P2 

769 

33     2H 

33* 

2H2 

16     Q 
16* 
Q2 

793 
801 
809 

34     21 

34* 

212 

17     R 
17* 
R2 

817 

^^ 
833 

35     2K 

35* 

2K2 

18     S 
18* 
S2 

841 
849 
857 

36     2L 

36* 

2L2 

THE   FOREMAN   OR   OVERSEER. 


GENERAL  DUTIES. 


QVERSIGHT,  vigilant 
^^  and  conscientious,  is 
the  price  of  profit  and 
success.  An  overseer 
or  foreman  of  a  print- 
ing-office should  be  of 
more  than  ordinary 
capacity,  and  possess 
an  even  and  unruffled 
temper.  His  conduct 
should  be  guided  by 
justice  and  equity  in 
regard  to  the  interests 
of  the  employer  and 
the  employed.  A  strict 
impartiality  should  be 
observed  in  his  treat- 
ment of  the  workmen, 
and  no  favouritism  should  be  displayed.  He  should  make 
himself  acquainted  with  the  capacity  of  the  men,  and  appor- 
tion work  among  them  accordingly.  Some  men  are  valueless 
except  for  plain,  straightforward  composition;  others,  distin- 
guished for  taste  and  skill,  delight  in  intricate  work  or  matter 
requiring  ingenuity  and  delicacy,  such  as  tables,  music,  and 
algebra.  Put  one  of  the  first  class  on  this  sort  of  composition, 
and  he  will  "botch''  it-,  and  earn  small  wages;  while  a  work- 
man of  the  latter  class  will  become  restive  and  dissatisfied  with 
196 


GENERAL  DUTIEJS,  197 

plain,  solid  matter.  While  dealing  justly  with  the  men  under 
his  charge,  the  foreman  should  see  to  it  that  the  employer 
suffers  no  detriment  from  negligent  or  dishonest  practices  of 
unconscientious  workmen,  whether  from  careless  correcting, 
allowing  dropped  types  to  lie  upon  the  floor,  or  overcharging, 
or  other  methods  well  known  in  a  printing-office.  He  should 
be  the  first  and  the  last  in  attendance,  in  order  to  satisfy  him- 
self that  every  person  does  his  duty  in  coming  and  leaving  at 
the  proper  time. 

The  office  having  been  thoroughly  swept  at  an  early  hour, 
and  the  type  found  in  any  alley  having  been  placed  in  the 
stick  of  the  compositor  occupying  it,  the  foreman  should  pass 
around  the  room  and  see  that  it  is  immediately  distributed, 
instead  of  being  thrown  on  the  window-frame  «r  table.  The 
type  found  in  the  body  of  the  rooms  should  be  sorted  out  and 
distributed  at  once,  and  not  be  allowed  to  accumulate.  No  pi 
should  be  permitted  to  remain  over  till  the  next  day.  This  is 
an  essential  point  to  secure  a  tidy  and  well-regulated  office. 

The  foreman  should  keep  himself  thoroughly  informed  of 
the  amount  and  condition  of  the  materials  in  the  office,  not 
only  in  gross,  but  in  detail,  including  every  style  of  type, 
every  variety  of  accents  and  peculiar  sorts,  leads,  chas6s, 
furniture,  rules,  borders,  comer-pieces,  <fec.  In  this  he  will 
be  greatly  aided  by  carrying  out  the  good  old  rule,  A  place 
for  every  thing,  and  every  thing  in  its  place  ivhen  not  in  use, 
as  well  as  by  keeping  a  memorandum-book  in  which  every- 
thing should  be  entered  under  its  proper  head  for  facility  of 
reference. 

As  a  matter  of  course,  he  should  watch  the  progress  of  every 
job  and  book,  and  make  sure  that  they  shall  be  completed 
within  the  time  contracted  for.  He  should  never  allow  a  com- 
positor to  have  a  large  take  of  copy:  small  takes  facilitate 
expedition,  and  really  tend  to  the  profit  of  the  workmen  by 
bringing  an  earlier  return  of  letter.  He  should  see  to  it  that 
every  man  has  his  copy  closed  in  proper  time,  so  as  not  to  de- 
tain the  make-up,  and  that  he  passes  the  make-up  without 
unnecessary  delay.  As  soon  as  a  form  or  sheet  is  made  up, 
he  should  order  it  to  be  imposed  and  a  proof  pulled,  which, 
with  the  copy  properly  arranged,  is  to  be  at  once  handed  to 
the  proof-reader.  Nor  should  he  allow  of  any  unnecessary 
delay  on  the  part  of  the  reader,  nor  on  the  part  of  the  com- 
positors in  correcting  the  proof  when  read.     When  proofs  are 

17* 


1^8 


THE  FOREMAN. 


required  by  an  author,  the  foreman  must  forward  them 
promptly  to  him,  and  request  him  to  return  them  at  the 
earliest  possible  moment.  If  the  proof  is  not  to  be  sent  out, 
he  should  have  the  second  reading  quickly  performed,  and 
the  forms  prepared  for  the  foundry  or  ihe  press. 

Systematic  attention  to  the  above  points  will  tend  to  the 
comfort  of  the  overseer,  to  the  advantage  of  the  workmen,  and 
to  the  profit  and  satisfaction  of  the  proprietor  of  the  establish- 
ment. 

The  foreman  will  find  a  memorandum  Press-Book  very 
useful,  in  which  to  make  entries  of  the  amount  of  the  paper 
given  out  by  the  warehouseman  for  the  various  works,  the 
number  printed,  &c.,  as  well  as  the  name  of  the  pressmen 
when  the  work  is  done  on  hand-presses. 


When 

given  out 

to  wet. 

Names  of  Works. 

No. 

Signa- 
tures. 

Date 

when  laid 

on. 

Names  of 
Pressmen. 

1865. 

May  2 

«     4 

•       «     6 

"     7 

Decorative  Printing... 
Quarto  Bible 

1000 
750 
1000 
3000 

11 

18 
20 

2 

1865. 

May  4 

"     5 

«     8 
"     9 

Goette. 
Williams. 
Ileriot. 
Smith. 

American  Printer 

Life  of  Prescott 

It  is  commonly  the  business  of  the  foreman  to  examine  the 
press  revise ;  in  doing  which,  he  will  be  careful  not  only  to 
ascertain  whether  all  the  corrections  marked  in  the  proof  are 
made,  but  also  to  look  carefully  over  the  sides,  head,  and 
bottom  of  each  page.  It  frequently  happens  that  the  folios 
drop  out  of  the  form  in  lifting  it  off"  the  imposing-stone ;  and 
in  leaded  matter,  letters  at  the  beginning  and  ends  of  lines 
sometimes  fall  out  of  place.  Before  the  revise  is  given  to  the 
compositor,  the  name  of  the  pressman  who  is  to  work  otf  the 
form  should  be  entered  in  the  Press-Book.  With  foul  com- 
positors, he  should  require  a  second  revise,  in  order  to  ascer- 
tain if  all  the  corrections  have  been  made  which  were  marked 
in  the  first.  He  should  (where  there  is  not  a  pressman  engaged 
expressly  for  the  purpose,  as  is  the  case  in  houses  employing 


CASTING  OFF  COPY,  199 

numerous  machine  -  presses)  go  frequently  to  the  different 
presses,  and  examine  the  work,  point  out  defects,  if  any,  and 
glance  again  over  the  heads,  sides,  and  bottoms  of  the  pages, 
to  see  if  any  thing  has  been  drawn  out  by  the  rollers,  which 
may  occur  from  bad  justification  of  the  lines,  and  careless  and 
improper  locking  up  of  the  form. 

An  active  and  conscientious  foreman  will  not  be  content 
with  merely  managing  the  concerns  of  the  composing-room  : 
he  will  also  see  that  the  business  of  the  warehouse  is  attended 
to  with  regularity  and  accuracy,  and  that  the  warehouseman, 
errand-boys,  and  apprentices  do  their  duty. 


CASTING  OFF  COPY, 

To  cast  off  manuscript  with  accuracy  and  precision,  is  a 
task  which  requires  great  attention  and  mature  deliberation. 
The  trouble  and  difficulty  are  much  increased  when  the  copy 
is  not  only  irregularly  written  (which  is  generally  the  case), 
but  also  abounds  with  interlineations,  erasures,  and  varia- 
tions in  the  sizes  of  paper.  At  times,  so  numerous  are  the 
alterations  and  additions  as  to  baffle  the  skill  and  judgment 
of  the  most  experienced  calculators  of  cojiy.  Such  an  imper- 
fect and  slovenly  mode  of  sending  works  to  the  press  cannot 
be  too  strongly  censured. 

The  first  step  necessary  is  to  take  a  comprehensive  view  of 
the  copy,  noticing  whether  it  has  been  written  even  or  has 
many  interlineations,  <fec.,  and  observing  also  the  number  of 
break-lines,  and  whether  the  work  be  divided  into  chapters 
and  sub-heads,  in  order  that  allowance  may  be  made  for  them 
in  the  calculation.  These  observations  may  be  noted  on  a 
separate  piece  of  paper,  to  assist  the  memory  and  save  the 
trouble  of  re-examining  the  manuscript. 

This  preparation  being  made,  we  ascertain  the  number  of 
words  contained  in  the  line  by  counting  several  separate  lines 
in  various  parts  of  the  copy,  so  that  the  one  we  adopt  may  be 
a  fair  average.  We  then  take  the  number  of  lines  in  a  page, 
and  multiply  by  the  number  of  words  found  in  the  average 
line  :  the  quotient  we  then  multiply  by  the  quantity  of  folios 
the  manuscript  copy  may  contain,  and  thus  we  get  the  amount 
of  words  contained  in  the  work,  with  a  tolerable  degree  of  accu- 
racy.   The  necessary  allowances  should  be  made  for  break- 


200  THE  FOREMAN. 

lines,  chapters,  insertions,  &c.,  according  to  the  observations 
previously  made  on  the  memorandum. 

If  information  has  been  furnished  as  to  the  size  of  letter  the 
work  is  to  be  done  in  and  the  width  of  the  page,  we  make  our 
measure  accordingly,  and,  by  composing  a  few  lines  of  the 
manuscript  copy,  we  ascertain  what  number  of  words  will 
come  into  each  printed  line :  we  then  take  the  length  of  our 
j)age  in  lines,  and  multiply  the  one  by  the  other,  thus  getting 
the  number  of  words  in  the  printed  page.  We  divide  the  whole 
number  of  words  in  the  manuscript  by  the  number  contained 
in  the  printed  page :  the  quotient  gives  the  number  of  pages  the 
manuscript  will  make.  If  too  many,  the  page  must  be  enlarged ; 
if  too  few,  the  page  must  be  diminished  in  width  and  length. 
For  example  :^We  take  the  number  of  words  in  a  line  of 
manuscript  at  20,  the  lines  in  a  page  at  50 ;  we  multiply  50  by 
20,  which  will  produce  1000  words  in  a  page ;  we  then  multiply 
1000  by  422,  the  number  of  folios  in  the  manuscript,  and  we 
find  it  contains  422,000  words.  The  work  being  printed  in  Pica 
octavo,  20  ems  measure,  and  each  line  containing  10  words, 
each  page  40  lines,  the  case  will  stand  thus : — 


MANUSCRIP' 

r. 

PRINTED. 

50 

20 

40 
_10 

1000 
422 

400)422000  words  in  MS. 
1055  pages. 

2000 

2000 

Divide 

4000 

MS. 

16)1055(65  sheets. 

422000  words  in 

15  pages. 

Another  method  for  casting  off  copy  is  the  following,  as  laid 
down  by  a  predecessor : — 

"After  having  made  the  measure  for  the  work,  we  set  a 
line  of  the  letter  that  is  designed  for  it,  and  take  notice  how 
much  copy  will  come  into  the  line  in  the  stick,— whether  less 
or  more  than  a  line  of  manuscript ;  and,  as  it  is  seldom  that 
neither  one  nor  the  other  happens,  we  make  a  mark  in  the 
copy  where  the  line  in  the  stick  ends,  and  number  the  words 
that  it  contains.  But,  as  this  is  not  the  safest  way  for  casting 
off  close,  we  count  not  only  the  syllables,  but  even  the  letters, 
that  are  in  a  line  in  the  stick,  of  which  we  make  a  memo- 


CASTING  OFF  COPY.  201 

landum,  and  proceed  to  set  off  a  second,  third,  or  fourth  line, 
till  a  line  of  copy  falls  even  with  a  line  in  the  stick ;  and,  as 
we  did  to  the  first  line  in  the  stick,  so  we  do  to  the  other, 
marking  on  the  manuscript  the  end  of  each  line  in  the  stick, 
and  telling  the  letters  in  each,  to  see  how  they  balance  against 
each  other.  This  being  carefully  done,  we  begin  counting  otf, 
each  time,  as  many  lines  of  copy  as  we  know  will  make  even 
lines  in  the  stick.  For  example,  if  2  lines  of  copy  make  3  lines 
in  print,  then  4  make  6,  6  make  9,  8  make  12,  and  so  on,  call- 
ing every  two  lines  of  copy  three  in  print. 

**  In  like  manner  we  say,  if  4  lines  make  5,  then  8  make  10, 
and  so  on,  comparing  every  four  lines  of  copy  to  five  lines  in 
print. 

"  And  in  this  manner  we  carry  our  calculation  on  as  far  as 
we  have  occasion,  either  for  pages,  forms,  or  sheets. 

"The  foregoing  calculations  are  intended  to  serve  where  a 
line  of  print  takes  in  less  than  a  line  of  copy;  and,  therefore, 
where  a  line  of  i)rint  takes  in  more  than  a  line  of  copy,  the 
problem  is  reversed,  and,  instead  of  saying,  if  2  lines  make  3, 
we  say,  in  this  case,  if  3  lines  of  copy  make  2  lines  in  print, 
then  6  lines  make  4,  9  make  6,  12  make  8,  and  so  on,  counting 
three  lines  of  copy  to  make  two  lines  in  print.  In  this  manner 
we  may  carry  our  calculation  to  what  number  of  pages,  forms, 
or  sheets  we  will,  remembering  always  to  count  off  as  many 
lines  of  copy  at  once  as  we  have  found  they  will  make  even 
lines  in  the  stick.  Thus,  for  example,  if  5  lines  make  7,  the 
progression  of  5  is  10,  15,  20,  &c.,  and  the  progression  of  7  will 
be  14,  21,  28,  &c. 

"  In  counting  off  copy,  we  take  notice  of  the  breaks ;  and 
where  we  judge  that  one  will  drive  out,  we  intimate  it  by  a 
mark  of  this  shape  [ ;  and  again,  where  we  find  that  a  break 
will  get  in,  we  invert  it,  thus,  ].  And  to  render  these  marks 
conspicuous  to  the  compositor,  we  write  them  in  the  margin, 
that  he  may  take  timely  notice,  and  keep  his  matter  accord- 
ingly. We  also  take  care  to  make  proper  allowance  for  heads 
to  chapters,  sections,  paragraphs,  &c. 

"In  examining  the  state  of  the  copy,  we  must  observe 
whether  it  has  abbreviations,  that  we  may  guard  against  them 
in  casting  off,  and  allow  for  them  according  to  the  extent  of 
the  respective  words  when  written  out  at  length." 

The  foregoing  will  convey  a  sufficient  idea  as  to  the  best 
mode  of  casting  off  copy ;  still,  these  remarks  more  properly 


202 


THE  FOREMAN, 


apply  to  regularly  written  and  thoroughly  revised  copy.  Upon 
this  subject,  Smith  justly  observes, — 

"  But  how  often  one  or  more  of  these  requisites  are  wanting, 
compositors  can  best  tell ;  though  very  few  will  imagine  that 
among  men  of  learning  there  should  be  some  who  write  after 
such  a  manner  that  even  those  who  live  by  transcribing  rather 
shun  than  crave  to  be  employed  by  them :  no  wonder,  there- 
fore, if  compositors  express  not  the  best  wishes  to  such  pro- 
moters of  printing.  But  it  is  not  ahvays  the  capacious  genius 
that  ought  to  be  excused  for  writing  in  too  great  a  hurry ;  for 
sometimes  those  of  no  exuberant  brains  affect  uncouth  writing, 
on  purpose  to  strengthen  the  common  notion  that  the  more 
learned  the  man,  the  worse  is  his  (hand)  writing;  which  shows 
that  writing  well  or  bad  is  but  a  habit  with  those  that  can 
write." 

HURRIED  WORK. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  print  pamphlets  and  other 
works  of  a  temporary  nature  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours. 
When  a  work  of  this  kind  is  put  in  hand,  the  foreman  selects 
the  requisite  number  of  swift  and  skilful  compositors,  whose 
first  concern  must  be  to  appoint  one  from  among  them  to 
make  up  the  matter,  and  to  do  every  thing  Avhich  would  inter- 
fere with  the  regular  business  of  distributing,  composing,  and 
correcting.  While  they  are  distributing  letter,  the  clicker,  or 
person  appointed  to  manage  the  work,  procures  the  copy,  with 
all  necessary  information  respecting  it,  and  provides  leads, 
rules,  and  every  other  necessary  sort.  He  then  draws  out  the 
following  table : — 


Compositors'  Names. 

Folios  of 
Copy. 

Lines 
Composed. 

Memorandums. 

In  the  first  column  he  writes  the  name  of  each  compositor 
;vhen  he  takes  copy ;  and,  in  the  second,  the  folio  of  the  copy. 


HUBRIED  WORK.  203 

that  he  may  be  able  to  ascertain  instantly  in  whose  hands  it 
lies.  In  the  third  column  he  sets  down,  opposite  to  the  work- 
man's name,  the  number  of  lines  composed,  as  fast  as  the  gal- 
leys are  brought  to  him.  In  the  fourth,  he  inserts  such  remarks 
respecting  the  copy,  &c.  as  may  be  necessary,  and  also  any 
circumstances  that  may  occur  in  the  companionship. 

When  the  work  is  finished,  each  man's  share  of  lines  is 
readily  ascertained,  and  all  disputes  are  avoided.  The  pub- 
lisher may  expedite  the  progress  of  the  work  by  offering  a 
copy  of  the  book,  or  some  other  token,  as  a  premium  to  the 
compositor  who  sets  the  largest  number  of  ems.  The  maker- 
up  or  clicker  usually  receives  for  his  compensation  the  head 
and  foot  lines,  and  two  or  three  cents  per  thousand,  which  is 
deducted  from  the  wages  paid  to  the  compositor.  Sometimes 
the  compositors  work  **in  pocket,"  as  it  is  called,  or  share 
evenly  in  the  proceeds.  This,  however,  is  not  a  satisfactory 
mode,  and  its  tendency  is  to  retard  the  work,  as  no  man  will 
be  anxious  to  do  more  than  his  share. 

When  the  compositors  are  ready  for  their  first  taking  of 
copy,  it  should  be  given  to  them  in  pieces  as  short  as  possible, 
the  first  two  beginning  with  shorter  takes  than  the  others,  to 
prevent  delay  in  the  making  up.  During  the  time  the  first 
take  is  in  hand,  the  clicker  sets  the  half-head,  head-lines, 
white-lines,  and  signature-lines,  together  with  notes  and  other 
extraneous  matter. 

When  the  first  person  brings  his  matter,  the  clicker  counts 
off  the  number  of  lines,  and  inserts  them  in  the  table;  he 
then  gives  him  another  take  of  copy,  and  proceeds  with  the 
making  up.  The  same  plan  is  observed  with  the  rest  of  the 
compositors.  When  the  first  sheet  is  made  up,  the  clicker 
lays  the  pages  on  the  stone,  and  informs  the  foreman  of  it, 
who  will  then  immediately  provide  chases  and  furniture,  and 
the  clicker  immediately  imposes  the  form. 

The  proofs  should  be  read  at  once  and  given  to  the  clicker 
to  have  them  corrected.  As  soon  as  this  is  done,  he  lays  up 
the  forms,  and  gives  the  proof  to  the  compositor  whose  matter 
stands  first,  who  should  immediately  correct  it,  then  forward 
it  to  the  next,  and  so  on,  till  the  sheet  be  corrected ;  the  clicker 
then  locks  it  up  and  pulls  the  second  proof,  which  must  be 
duly  forwarded,  and  the  type  be  locked  up  finally  for  press. 

The  work  will  now  proceed  rapidly,  provided  the  composi- 
tors stick  close  to  their  work  and  there  be  no  hinderance  with 


204  THE  FOREMAN. 

respect  to  letter,  tfec. :  this  depends  on  the  good  management 
of  the  foreman. 

If  the  clicker  find  that  he  cannot  make  up  the  matter  as  fast 
as  it  is  composed,  he  should  call  one  of  the  compositors  to  his 
assistance,  who  must  be  the  person  last  in  copy. 

COMPANIONSHIPS, 

Disputes  sometimes  arise  in  a  printing-office  upon  trifling 
as  well  as  important  points,  w^hich  should  be  settled  by  a  re- 
ference to  the  general  custom  and  usage  of  the  trade.  These 
annoying  misunderstandings  take  place  in  companionships 
consisting  of  several  compositors;  it  is  therefore  highly  de- 
sirable that  the  generally  received  rules  and  regulations  in 
this  regard  should  be  explicitly  laid  down  for  the  comfort  and 
government  of  the  compositor. 

TAKING  COPY. 

When  the  work  to  be  taken  in  hand  is  a  reprint  which  is  to 
be  followed  page  for  page,  a  fixed  number  of  pages  should  be 
given  to  each  compositor  as  he  comes  in  turn  for  cojDy ;  or,  if 
the  work  be  in  manuscript,  an  equal  average  amount  should 
be  allowed  as  a  take  for  each  compositor.  The  foreman  should 
permit  none  of  the  hands  to  have  access  to  the  copy,  but  should 
deal  it  out  as  wanted  with  perfect  impartiality,  fat  or  lean  as 
it  may  happen  to  run.  Otherwise,  a  compositor  who  has  an 
acquaintance  with  the  copy  may  be  tempted  to  loiter  if  the 
next  take  to  be  given  out  be  lean,  or,  if  it  be  fat,  to  apply  for 
copy  before  his  work  in  hand  is  finished.  By  this  course,  the 
foreman  will  prevent  all  such  sorts  of  shari^  practice,  and 
secure  harmony  in  the  companionship.  When  the  foreman 
gives  out  copy,  he  should  plainly  mark  the  name  of  the  com- 
positor at  the  head  of  the  first  page  of  the  take  if  the  work  be  a 
page-for-page  reprint ;  if  it  be  manuscript,  or  a  reprint  in  a 
different  measure  from  that  of  the  copy,  he  should  write  the 
name  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  paragraph  of  the  take. 
Most  compositors  desire  to  have  a  large  portion  of  copy,  under 
the  erroneous  idea  that  it  will  be  to  their  advantage  to  make 
up  many  pages  at  once.  Small  takes  insure  a  more  rapid  exe- 
cution of  the  work  and  bring  a  quicker  return  of  letter,  and  so 
tend  to  the  profit  of  the  hands. 

If  one  of  the  companionship  absents  himself,  the  man  next 


COMPANIONSHIPS.  205 

in  order  should  close  his  copy,  whether  it  be  good  or  bad,  un- 
less the  larger  portion  of  it  be  not  set,  in  which  case  the  person 
who  has  the  last  take  must  go  on  with  it. 

MAKING  UP. 

The  compositor  who  has  the  first  take  on  the  work  proceeds 
without  dela^^  to  make  it  up  as  soon  as  he  has  completed  it. 
Having  completed  as  many  pages  as  his  matter  will  make,  he 
passes  the  overplus,  if  less  than  half  a  page,  with  the  correct 
head  and  folio,  to  the  compositor  whose  matter  follows  his,  at 
the  same  time  taking  an  account  of  the  number  of  lines  loaned; 
if,  on  the  contrary,  the  overplus  makes  more  than  half  a  page, 
he  borrows  a  sufficient  number  of  lines  to  complete  his  page ; 
each  compositor  keeping  an  account  of  the  number  of  lines 
borrowed  and  loaned.  The  second  compositor,  following  the 
same  course,  passes  the  make-up  to  the  next  in  succession; 
each  man  passing  the  make-up  in  like  manner  without  un- 
necessary delay. 

MAKING   UP  OF   LETTER. 

The  number  of  the  companionship,  if  possible,  should  be 
determined  on  at  the  commencement  of  the  work,  to  enable 
all  to  proceed  uj^on  an  equal  footing.  The  letter  appropriated 
for  the  work  should  be  adequate  to  ke^iep  the  persons  on  it 
fully  employed. 

If  any  part  of  the  matter  for  distribution,  whether  in  chase 
or  in  paper,  be  desirable  or  otherwise  on  account  of  the  sorts 
it  may  contain,  it  should  be  divided  equally,  or  the  choice  of 
it  thrown  for. 

When  a  new  companion  is  put  on  the  work  after  the  re- 
spective shares  of  letter  are  made  up,  and  if  there  be  not  a 
sufficiency  to  carry  on  all  the  companionship  without  making 
up  more,  he  must  bring  on  an  additional  quantity  before  he 
can  be  allowed  to  partake  of  any  part  of  that  which  comes 
from  the  press, 

MAKING  UP   FURNITURE. 

The  companions  in  rotation  should  make  up  the  furniture 
in  turn,  the  one  who  has  the  last  matter  in  the  first  sheet  lead- 
ing off.  Should  an  odd  sheet  be  wanted,  it  will  be  better  to 
throw  for  the  chance  of  making  it  up. 

18 


206 


THE  FOREMAN, , 


IMPOSING  AND  DISTRIBUTING  LETTER. 

The  person  to  whose  turn  it  falls  to  impose  must  lay  up  the 
form  for  distribution.  To  prevent  disputes,  it  will  be  well  to 
prepare  a  blank  form,  as  follows,  which  may  be  filled  up  as 
the  work  proceeds. 


u 
a 

LippiNCOTT's  Pronouncing  Gazetteer. 

By  whom 
imposed. 

1 

G 

2 

u 

-< 

-2 
1 

1 

B 

4 

5 

4 

3 

Devlin. 

C 

3 

4 

5 

4 

Maclean. 

D 

E 

F 

When  the  form  is  laid  up,  the  letter  should  be  divided 
equally,  and,  if  possible,  each  person  should  distribute  the 
matter  originally  composed  by  him ;  by  this  means,  the  sorts 
which  may  have  made  his  case  uneven  will  return  to  him. 
If  arly  man  absent  himself  beyond  a  reasonable  time,  his  un- 
distributed matter  should  be  divided  equally  among  his  com- 
panions, and  when  he  returns  he  may  have  his  share  of  the 
next  division. 

CORRECTING. 

The  compositor  whose  matter  is  first  in  the  proof  should  lay 
up  the  forms  on  the  imposing-stone  and  correct  it;  he  then 
hands  the  proof  to  the  person  who  follows  next.  The  composi- 
tor who  corrects  the  last  part  of  the  sheet  locks  up  the  forms. 

The  compositor  who  has  matter  in  the  first  and  last  part, 
but  not  the  middle  of  the  sheet,  only  lays  up  the  forms  and 
corrects  his  matter ;  the  locking  up  is  left  to  the  person  who 
corrects  last  in  the  sheet. 

A  compositor  having  the  first  page  only  of  the  sheet  is  re- 
quired to  lay  up  one  form ;  also  to  lock  up  one  form  if  he  has 
but  the  last  page. 


COMPANIONSHIPS.  207 

If,  from  carelessness  in  locking  up  the  form, — viz.  the  furni- 
ture binding,  the  quoins  badly  fitted,  &c., — any  letters,  or  even 
a  page,  should  fall  out,  the  person  who  locked  up  the  form 
should  repair  the  damage.  But,  if  the  accident  occur  from 
bad  justification,  or  from  letters  riding  upon  the  ends  of  the 
leads,  the  loss  should  fall  upon  the  person  to  whom  the  matter 
belongs. 

It  is  the  business  of  the  locker-up  to  ascertain  whether  all 
the  pages  are  of  equal  length ;  and,  though  a  defect  in  this  re- 
spect is  highly  rex)rehensible  in  the  maker-up  (whose  duty  it 
is  to  rectify  it),  yet,  if  not  previously  discovered  by  the  locker- 
up,  and  an  accident  happen,  he  must  make  good  the  defect. 

The  compositor  who  imposes  a  sheet  must  correct  the 
alterations  in  that  sheet.  He  must  also  rectify  any  defect  in 
the  register,  arising  from  want  of  accuracy  in  the  furniture. 

Forms  sometimes  remain  a  considerable  length  of  time 
before  they  are  put  to  press.  In  this  case,  particularly  in 
summer,  the  furniture  is  likely  to  shrink,  and  the  pages  may 
fall  out.  It  is  therefore  the  business  of  the  locker-up  to  attend 
to  it  in  this  respect,  or  he  will  be  subject  to  make  good  any 
accident  which  his  neglect  may  occasion. 

When  forms  which  have  been  worked  off  are  ordered  to  be 
kept  standing,  they  are  considered  under  the  care  of  the  fore- 
man. When  they  are  cleared  away,  it  is  to  be  done  in  equal 
proportions  by  the  companionship.  During  the  time  any 
forms  may  have  remained  under  the  care  of  the  foreman, 
should  there  have  been  any  alteration  as  to  form  or  substance 
which  were  not  made  by  the  original  compositors,  they  are 
not  subject  to  clear  away  those  parts  of  the  form  thus  altered. 

If  the  pressmen  unlock  a  form  on  the  press,  and  any  part 
of  it  fall  out  from  carelessness  in  the  locking  up,  they  are  sub- 
ject to  the  loss  that  may  happen  in  consequence. 

The  compositor  who  locks  up  a  sheet  takes  it  to  the  proof- 
press,  and,  after  he  has  pulled  a  proof,  hands  it,  together  with 
the  foul  proof,  to  the  reader,  and  deposits  the  form  in  a  place 
appointed  for  that  purpose. 

TRANSPOSITION  OF  PAGES. 

Each  person  in  the  companionship  must  lay  down  his  pages 
properly  on  the  stone  for  imposition.  The  compositor  whose 
turn  it  is  to  impose  looks  them  over  to  see  if  they  are  rightly 
placed.    Should  they,  after  this  examination,  lie  improperly, 


208  THE  FOREMAN. 

and  be  thus  imposed,  it  will  be  his  business  to  transpose  them  ; 
but,  should  the  folios  be  wrong,  and  the  mistake  arise  from 
this  cause,  it  must  be  rectified  by  the  person  to  whom  the 
matter  belongs.  Pages  without  folios  or  head-lines,  laid  down 
wrongly  for  imposition,  must  be  rectified  by  the  person  who 
has  been  slovenly  enough  to  adopt  this  plan. 

RULES  AND  REGULATIONS  TO  BE  OBSERVED  IN 
A  PRINTING-OFFICE, 

1.  Compositors  are  to  receive  their  cases  from  the  foreman 
or  his  assistant,  free  from  all  pi  or  improper  sorts,  with  clean 
quadrate  and  space  boxes,  both  Roman  and  Italic,  which  they 
are  to  return  to  him  in  equally  good  condition. 

2.  When  a  compositor  receives  letter,  furniture,  &c.  from 
the  foreman,  he  is  to  return  any  portion  not  used,  in  as  good 
state  as  he  received  it,  the  same  day. 

3.  When  a  case  is  taken  out  of  the  rack,  the  compositor  is  to 
return  it  into  the  proper  place  immediately  after  he  has  done 
with  it. 

4.  No  cases  to  be  placed  over  others,  or  under  the  frames, 
or  on  the  floor. 

5.  Compositors  are  to  impose  their  matter  and  pull  a  proof 
as  soon  as  made  up,  unless  directed  otherwise,  and  to  correct 
the  proof  without  unnecessary  delay. 

6.  The  proof,  when  pulled,  to  be  given  to  the  reader,  the 
copy  in  regular  order  to  accompany  the  first  proof,  and  the 
foul  proof  the  second. 

7.  Compositors  are  not  to  leave  either  type  or  furniture  on 
the  stone. 

8.  A  compositor  is  not  to  detain  an  imposing-stone  longer 
than  the  nature  of  the  business  may  require. 

9.  Head-lines,  or  other  useful  materials,  on  galleys,  used 
during  the  course  of  a  work,  to  be  cleared  away  as  soon  as  the 
work  is  finished. 

10.  When  a  work  is  done,  the  compositor,  before  beginning 
another  work,  unless  otherwise  directed,  is  to  clear  away  the 
forms,  taking  from  them  the  head -lines,  white-lines,  and  odd 
sorts,  as  well  as  the  leads  and  reglets ;  which,  with  the  furni- 
ture of  each  sheet,  and  the  matter  properly  tied  up  for  paper- 
ing, are  to  be  given  to  the  foreman. 

11.  Sweepings  of  frames  to  be  cleared  away  before  one 


RULES, 


209 


o'clock  every  day.    Matter  broken  by  accident  to  be  cleared 
away  on  the  same  day. 

12.  The  saw,  saw-block,  bowl,  sponge,  letter-brush,  shears, 
bellows,  &c.,  to  be  returned  to  their  respective  places  as  soon 
as  done  with. 

13.  Letter-boards,  windows,  frames,  &c.,  to  be  kept  free 
from  pi. 

14.  No  person  to  take  sorts  from  the  cases  of  another  with- 
out leave,  nor  hoard  useful  sorts,  not  wanting  or  likely  to 
want  them. 

15.  Compositors  employed  by  the  week  to  work  not  less 
than  ten  hours  per  day. 

16.  Unnecessary  conversation  to  be  avoided. 


Q 

o 

o 
o 


CABINET    OF   CASES. 

18* 


THE   PRESS   AND   ITS   WORKING. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PRESS. 


OLD    COMMON    PRESS. 


WHILE  poets  and  orators  have 
expatiated  on  the  glory  and 
power  of  the  press,  rulers  have  ex- 
hausted their  cunning  in  attempts 
to  curb  and  regulate  the  art  of  which 
it  is  the  symbol.  Hedged  in  by  arbi- 
trary restrictions,  it  is  not  wonder- 
ful that  printing  was  long  carried 
on  with  clumsy  implements.  The 
earliest  press  resembled  a  screw- 
press,  with  a  contrivance  for  run- 
ning the  form  of  types  under  the  point  of  pressure.  After  the 
impression  was  taken,  the  screw  was  relaxed,  and  the  form 
withdrawn  and  the  sheet  removed. 

This  rude  press  continued  in  general  use  till  1620,  when 
WiiiLEM  Jansen  Blaeu,  at  first  a  joiner  and  afterward  a 
mathematical  instrument  maker  of  Amsterdam,  contrived  a 
press  in  which  the  bed  or  carriage  was  brought  under  the 
point  of  pressure  by  moving  a  handle  attached  to  a  screw 
hanging  in  a  beam  with  a  spring,  the  spring  causing  the  screw 
to  fly  back  as  soon  as  the  impression  was  given.  This  move- 
ment was  afterward  effected  by  means  of  a  double  strap  oi 
belt,  two  ends  of  which  were  attached  to  an  axle,  and  the 
others  to  opposite  ends  of  the  bed.  The  platen  was  so  small, 
that  two  pulls  were  necessary  to  print  one  side  of  a  sheet,  and 
each  sheet,  therefore,  required  four  pulls  to  produce  a  complete 
impression. 
210 


THE  PRINTING  PRESS, 


211 


Adam  Ramage,  who  came  from  Scotland  to  Philadelphia 
about  1790,  and  who  for  a  long  time  was  the  chief  press-builder 
in  the  United  States,  made  some  improvements  in  the  old 
press,  one  of  which  was  the  substitution  of  an  iron  bed  for  the 
stone  one  before  in  use. 

About  the  year  1800,  Earl  Stanhope  contrived  a  press 
which  obtained  much  notoriety.  It  was  constructed  of  iron, 
and  of  a  size  sufficient  to  print  the  whole  surface  of  a  sheet, 
and  such  a  combined  action  of  levers  was  applied  to  the  screw 
as  to  make  the  pull  a  great  deal  less  laborious  to  the  pressman. 
But  the  Stanhope  was  soon  surpassed  by  the  Columbian  press, 
invented  by  George  Clymer,  of  Philadelphia.  Mr.  Clymer, 
as  early  as  1797,  endeavoured  to  improve  the  common  wooden 


COLUMBIAN    PRESS. 


press.  His  next  efforts  were  directed  to  the  production  of  an 
iron  press,  till  finally  most  eminent  success  was  the  result  of 
his  labours.  In  beauty,  durability,  and  power,  as  well  as 
facility  of  pull,  the  Columbian  press  stands,  perhaps,  unsur- 
passed. The  power  in  this  press  is  procured  by  a  long  bar  or 
handle  acting  upon  a  combination  of  exceedingly  powerful 
levers  above  the  platen;  the  return  of  the  handle  or  levers 
being  effected  by  means  of  counterpoises  or  weights.    The 


212 


THE  PMINTING  PRESS, 


powerful  command  which  the  leverage  enables  the  workman 
to  exercise  is  favourable  to  delicacy  and  exactness  of  printing, 
— his  arm  feeling,  as  it  were,  through  the  series  of  levers  to 
the  very  face  of  the  types.  The  inventor  removed  to  England 
in  1817,  and  introduced  the  press  there,  where  it  was  held  in 
high  estimation.  In  the  United  States,  presses  of  simpler 
construction  have  displaced  the  imposing  Columbian  press, — 
the  first  of  Avhich  was  invented  by  Peter  Smith,  of  New 
York,  and  the  latest  is  Samuel  Rust's  Washington  press, 


WASHINGTON    PRESS. 


which  has  secured  general  approbation  and  adoption,  as  being 
more  simple  and  cheaper,  if  not  more  effective,  than  the  Co- 
lumbian press.  Hand-presses  are  now  restricted  to  country 
papers  of  small  circulation,  and  to  book-offices  devoted  to 
extra  fine  printing. 

Most  books,  however,  are  printed  on  the  bed-and-platen 
power-press  invented  by  Isaac  Adams,  of  Boston, — the  only 
machine-press  yet  discovered  that  is  capable  of  producing 
fine  work  and  exact  register.  It  will  give  from  six  to  eight 
thousand  impressions  per  day.  The  Adams  press  is  made 
with  two,  four,  or  six  inking  rollers,  as  inay  be  ordered.  As 
the  platen  rolls  off  and  leaves  tlie  bed  entirely  exposed,  forms 


214  THE  PRINTING  PRESS, 

can.  be  made  ready  with  great  facility.  The  sheets  are  taken 
from  the  feed-board  by  fingers,  and,  after  being  printed,  are 
laid  in  a  pile  by  a  self-acting  sheet-flyer.  R.  Hoe  &  Co.,  who 
own  the  patent  right,  are  the  sole  manufacturers  of  this  press. 

The  Cylinder  press,  which  may  be  run  at  a  much  higher 
rate  of  speed  than  the  bed-and -platen  machine,  was  of  earlier 
invention.  Frederick  Konig,  a  Saxon,  early  in  the  present 
century  turned  his  attention  to  cylinder  printing,  and  was 
so  successful  that  on  November  28,  1814,  the  London  Times 
announced  the  fact  that  the  number  issued  on  that  day  had 
been  printed  by  machinery  propelled  by  steam.  The  first 
suggestion  of  a  cylinder  press  is  due,  nevertheless,  to  William 
Nicholson,  an  Englishman,  who  in  1790  took  out  a  patent  for 
such  a  machine,  but  which  was  never  acted  on.  Isaiah  Thomas 
says  that  a  Dr.  Kinsley,  of  Connecticut,  afterward  produced  a 
press  varying  somewhat  from  Nicholson's. 

In  1818,  Applegath  and  Cowper  made  important-  improve- 
ments in  Konig's  press,  which  greatly  enlarged  its  field  of  use- 
fulness. This  machine,  with  various  modifications  and  im- 
provements, is  in  general  use  in  Europe  and  America,  for 
newspapers  of  moderate  circulation,  and  job-work  in  which 
accurate  register  is  not  indispensable ;  though  by  some  of  the 
machines  made  by  R.  Hoe  &  Co.*  and  A.  B.  Taylor  &  Co.  of 
New  York,  exact  register  is  very  nearly  attainable. 


*  We  are  indebted  to  a  friend  for  the  following  sketch  of  the  origin,  progress, 
and  present  condition  of  the  world-famous  house  of  R.  Hoe  &  Co. 

Robert  Hoe,  the  founder  of  the  present  house  of  R.  Hoe  &  Co.  of  New  York, 
was  born  at  Hose,  in  Leicestershire,  England,  in  1784.  His  father  was  a  well-to- 
do  farmer  in  that  pleasant,  sequestered  district;  but,  as  the  family  was  large, 
Robert  was  apprenticed  to  a  carpenter  in  a  neighbouring  town.  His  attention 
was  early  attracted  and  his  mind  impressed  by  the  prosperity  of  the  people  of  the 
United  States ;  and,  being  a  republican  at  heart,  and  conscious  that  the  institu- 
tions of  his  own  country  presented  almost  insurmountable  obstacles  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  the  working  classes,  he  purchased  his  indentures  from  his  employer, 
and  in  1803  emigrated  to  New  York. 

On  his  arrival  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Grant  Thorbum,  who,  becoming 
interested  in  him,  received  him  into  his  family,  and  with  great  kindness  nursed 
him  with  his  own  hands  through  an  attack  of  the  yellow  fever,  which  was  then 
raging  in  the  city.  He  soon  established  himself  in  his  trade,-  and,  by  his  in- 
dustry, integrity,  and  enterprise,  became  advantageously  known  to  the  public. 
At  the  age  of  twenty  he  married  the  daughter  of  Matthew  Smith,  of  Westchester 
Co.,  New  York,  by  whom  he  had  three  sons  and  six  daughters.  For  a  time  he 
was  in  partnership  with  his  brothei--in-law,  Matthew  Smith,  Jr.,  a  carpenter  and 


THE  PRINTING  PRESS.  215 

The  invention  of  steam  printing  presses  rendered  books 
and  periodicals  so  cheap  that  the  progress  of  knowledge  was 
amazingly  accelerated;  and  soon  the  achievements  of  the 
cylinder  press  proved  unequal  to  the  work  of  printing  the 


printers'  joiner,  who,  on  their  separation,  associated  with  himself  his  brother, 
Peter  Smith,  who  was  educated  at  Yale  College,  and  was  the  inventor  of  the 
well-known  hand-press  bearing  his  name. 

On  the  decease  of  these  two  brothers,  Robert  Hoe,  in  1823,  succeeded  to  the 
business,  which  was  then  in  its  infancy,  giving  employment  to  only  a  handful  of 
men,  and  being  conducted  in  the  middle  of  the  block  bounded  by  Maiden  Lane, 
Pine,  William,  and  Pearl  Streets,  in  some  old  buildings  to  which  access  was 
gained  by  an  alley  running  from  Maiden  Lane  to  Pine  Street.  Here  the  busi- 
ness, under  the  style  of  Robert  Hoe  &  Co.,  grew  rapidly ;  but  the  extension  of 
Cedar  Street  made  necessary  its  removal  to  the  present  location  in  Gold  Street. 
About  this  time,  the  flat-bed  cylinder  press,  for  newspaper  printing,  was  intro- 
duced into  England ;  and  Mr.  Hoe  sent  an  intelligent  mechanic  there  to  examine 
it,  and  it  was  soon  brought  into  use  here,  with  valuable  improvements.  In  1832, 
Mr.  Hoe's  failing  health  obliged  him  to  relinquish  the  business  to  his  eldest  son, 
Richard  M.  Hoe,  and  Matthew  Smith,  son  of  his  first  partner.  In  the  following 
year  he  died.  Shortly  after  his  decease,  the  firm  erected  extensive  buildings  in 
Broome  Street,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  city,  where  the  greater  part  of  their 
manufacturing  has  since  been'  carried  on.  They  also  commenced  making  cast- 
steel  saws,  which  had  previously  been  exclusively  imported  from  England;  and 
this  branch  has  steadily  increased  in  importance. 

Matthew  Smith,  a  man  of  uncommon  ability  and  business  talents,  died  in  1842. 
The  business  was  then  continued  by  Richard  M.  Hoe,  with  his  two  brothers, 
Robert  Hoe  and  Peter  Smith  Hoe,— the  eldest,  as  before,  taking  charge  of  the 
mechanical  department,  in  which  his  industry  and  fertility  of  invention  are 
attested  by  the  number  and  value  of  his  patents.  In  1837,  he  patented  here  and 
in  England  his  method  of  grinding  circular  saws,  by  which  the  thickness  of  any 
part  of  a  saw  can  be  regulated  with  accuracy.  In  1846,  he  brought  out  the  so- 
called  "Lightning  Press,"  or  Type-Revolving  Printing  Machine,  described  in  the 
text,— the  greatest  innovation  on  the  rouliiie  of  the  printing  craft  since  the  days 
of  Gutenberg.  This  press  has  entirely  sninrscilcd  all  others  for  fast  printing, 
being  at  present  in  use  in  all  the  principal  ollices,  not  only  in  this  country,  but 
in  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Australia,  with  a  constantly  increasing 
demand. 

In  1858,  the  firm  purchased  of  Isaac  Adams,  of  Boston,  Massachusetts,  his 
entire  patent-rights,  together  with  his  establishment  for  the  manufacture  pf  his 
bed-and-platen  book  printing  presses,  and  various  machines  for  binders'  use, 
which  they  continue  to  conduct  there,  though  with  increased  facilities  and  many 
improvements.  Their  works  in  different  places  now  cover  thirty-five  city  lots,  or 
about  two  acres,  and  give  employment  to  nearly  six  hundred  hands.  The  office 
and  warerooms  of  the  house  in  England  are  at  13  Salisbury  Square,  Fleet  Street, 
London,  one  of  the  partners,  being  a  resident  in  that  city,  attending  to  the  busi- 
ness there. 


216 


THE  PRINTING  PRESS. 


enormous  editions  of  some  of  the  leading  newspapers  of  the 
world;  and  an  invention  to  meet  the  exigency  was  success- 
fully made  by  Col.  Richard  M.  Hoe,  of  New  York,  in  the 


HOE'S    TYPE-REVOLV 


218  THE  PRINTING  PMESS. 

Type-Kevolving  Printing  Machine,  of  which  we  give  two 
engravings.  It  is,  as  its  name  indicates,  on  tlie  rotary  prin- 
ciple ;  that  is,  the  form  of  type  is  placed  on  the  surface  of  a 
horizontal  revolving  cylinder  of  about  four  and  a  half  feet  in 
diameter.  The  form  occupies  a  segment  of  only  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  surface  of  the  cylinder,  and  the  remainder  is  used 
as  an  ink-distributing  surface.  Around  this  main  cylinder 
and  parallel  with  it,  are  placed  smaller  impression  cylinders 
varying  in  number  from  four  to  ten,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  machine.  The  large  cylinder  being  put  in  motion,  the 
form  of  types  is  carried  successively  to  all  the  impression 
cylinders,  at  each  of  which  a  sheet  is  introduced  and  receives 
the  impression  of  the  types  as  the  form  passes.  Thus,  as  many 
sheets  are  printed  at  each  revolution  of  the  main  cylinder  as 
there  are  impression  cylinders  around  it.  One  person  is  re- 
quired at  each  impression  cylinder  to  supply  the  sheets  of 
paper,  which  are  taken  at  the  proper  moment  by  fingers  or 
grippers,  and  after  being  printed  are  carried  out  by  tajDes  and 
laid  in  heaps  by  means  of  self-acting  flyers,  thereby  dispensing 
with  the  hands  required  in  ordinary  machines  to  receive  and 
pile  the  sheets.  The  grippers  hold  the  sheet  securely,  so  that 
the  thinnest  newspaper  may  be  printed  without  waste. 

The  ink  is  contained  in  a  fountain  placed  beneath  the  main 
cylinder,  and  is  conveyed  by  means  of  distributing  rollers  to 
the  distributing  surface  on  the  main  cylinder.  This  surface 
being  lower,  or  less  in  diameter,  than  the  form  of  types,  passes 
by  the  impression  cylinder  without  touching.  For  each  im- 
pression .there  are  two  inking  rollers,  which  receive  their 
supply  of  ink  from  the  distributing  surface  of  the  main  cylin- 
der: they  rise  and  ink  the  form  as  it  passes  under  them,  after 
which  they  again  fall  to  the  distributing  surface. 

Each  page  of  the  paper  is  locked  up  on  a  detached  segment 
of  the  large  cylinder,  which  constitutes  its  bed  and  chase.  The 
column-rules  run  parallel  with  the  shaft  of  the  cylinder,  and 
are,  consequently,  straight;  while  the  head,  advertising,  and 
'dash  rules  are  in  the  form  of  segments  of  a  circle.  The 
column-rules  are  in  the  form  of  a  wedge,  with  the  thin  part 
directed  toward  the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  so  as  to  bind  the 
types  securely.  These  wedge-shaped  column-rules  are  held 
down  to  the  bed  by  tongues  projecting  at  intervals  along  their 
length,  which  slide  in  rebated  grooves  cut  crosswise  in  the  face 
of  the  bed.    The  spaces  in  the  grooves  between  the  jolumn- 


THE  PRINTING  PItESS. 


219 


rules  are  accurately  fitted  with  sliding  blocks  of  metal  even 
with  the  surface  of  the  bed,  the  ends  of  which  blocks  are  cut 
away  underneath  to  receive  a  projection  on  the  sides  of  the 
tongues  of  the  column-rules.  The  form  of  type  is  locked  up 
in  the  bed  by  means  of  screws  at  the  foot  and  sides,  by  which 
the  type  is  held  as  securely  as  in  the  ordinar^^  manner  upon  a 
flat  bed, — if  not  even  more  so.  The  speed  of  these  machines  is 
limited  only  by  the  ability  of  the  feeders  to  supply  the  sheet. 

This  machine  was  first  used  by  the  Public  Ledger  of  Phila- 
delphia, and  was  afterward  adopted  by  the  leading  newspapers 
of  that  city  and  New  York,  as  well  as  of  the  chief  cities  of 
France  and  England. 

B  ULLOCK'S  PA  TENT  ROTAB  Y  PERFECTING  PRESS, 


This  American  machine  has  been  devised  by  William  Bul- 
lock for  printing  on  a  continuous  sheet  of  dampened  paper, 


220  JOB  PRESSES. 

unrolled  from  a  cylinder,  which,  before  it  leaves  the  machine, 
receives  impressions  on  both  sides.  Before  the  impression  is 
made  (from  stereotype  plates  bent  around  small  horizontal 
cylinders),  the  sheets  are  ingeniously  cut  of  the  proper  dimen- 
sions, and  when  printed  are  deposited  in  a  single  pile.  In  the 
office  of  the  Philadelphia  Inquirer  there  are  two  single  presses 
running  nine  thousand  perfect  copies  per  hour  each,  and  one 
double  press  producing  fifteen  thousand  copies  per  hour. 


PATENT  RAILROAD-TICKET  PRINTING  AND 
NUMBERING  PRESS. 

The  invention  of  this  ingenious  machine  is  due  to  the  sagacity 
and  enterprise  of  those  tasteful  and  excellent  printers,  San- 
ford,  Harroun  &  Co.,  of  New  York.  With  a  liberal  expen- 
diture of  money,  they  employed  a  pressman,  a  compositor,  and 
an  engineer,  to  work  out  their  ideas,  until  complete  success 
rewarded  the  combined  effort. 

The  machine  not  only  prints,  but  at  the  same  operation 
numbers  consecutively,  tickets  and  coupons  of  every  size  and 
pattern,  which  are  also  indented  or  cut  apart  by  the  machine 
as  fast  as  printed.  Ten  local  tickets,  of  ten  different  forms  if 
desired,  or  coupon  tickets  twenty-six  inches  in  length,  can  be 
printed  at  one  operation  of  the  press.  The  average  rate  of 
speed  is  about  fourteen  hundred  impressions  an  hour, — equiva- 
lent to  fourteen  thousand  tickets. 

JOB  PRESSES. 

The  invention  of  machines  for  printing  small  work  ele- 
gantly as  well  as  swiftly  is  of  vast  advantage  to  the  printer, 
and  has  greatly  increased  the  jobbing  department  of  typo- 
graphy. Here,  as  in  other  matters,  American  ingenuity  has 
taken  the  lead  of  all  nations;  and  the  presses  invented  by 
Ruggles,  Adams,  Hoe,  Wells,  Gordon,  and  Degener — not  to 
mention  numerous  other  inventors — defy  competition.  The 
Ruggles  presses  formerly  oommanded  the  trade ;  but  the  beau- 
tiful machines  of  George  P.  Gordon,  a  man  of  decided  genius, 
have  displaced  them  in  public  estimation.  Seth  Adams's 
machine,  made  by  R.  Hoe  &  Co.,  is  highly  esteemed. 


JOB  PRESSES. 


221 


Gordon's  Firefly 
press  is  unique,  and 
requires  a'  so-called 
endless  card  board, 
which  it  prints  and 
cuts  of  the  required 
shape  as  it  goes,  at 
the  rate  of  about  ten 
thousand  per  hour. 
This  is  not  in  general 
use;  but  his  Eighth 
Medium,  Quarto  Me- 
dium, and  Half 
Medium  Franklin 
presses,  here  shown, 
have  achieved  a  high 
reputation  for  expe- 
dition and  excellent 
performance. 


GORDON'S    FRANKLIN    PRESS. 


The  oppo- 
site cut  re- 
presents a 
new  jobber 
lately  intro- 
duced by  R. 
Hoe  (fe  Co.  of 
New  York, 
which,  judg- 
ing from  the 
well-known 
qualities  of 
all  their  ma- 
nufactures, 
will  doubt- 
less prove  to 
be  a  good 
machine.  It 

HOE'S    BED-AND-PLATEN    JOBBER.  •       „„•  -,    .^  ,   ^ 

IS  said  to  be 
simple  in  construction,  and  exceedingly  strong  and  durable. 

19« 


222  SETTING   UP  THE  BOLLER-STAND. 


SETTING  UP  A   WASHINGTON  PRESS, 

All  the  connecting  parts  being  marked,  or  indented  by 
points,  if  these  be  observed  carefully,  the  press  may  be  put 
together  without  difficulty. 

After  setting  the  frame  upon  its  legs,  and  putting  on  the 
ribs  and  bed,  lay  the  platen  on  the  bed,  placing  under  it  two 
bearers  about  type  high.  Then  put  the  springs  in  their  places, 
and  the  nuts  over  them,  and  pass  the  suspending-rods  through 
them,  observing  to  place  the  rods  so  that  the  number  of  in- 
dentations on  them  correspond  with  those  on  the  platen.  Give 
the  nuts  two  or  three  turns,  then  run  in  the  bed  so  as  to  bring 
the  platen  under  the  rods,  and  screw  them  fast  to  the  platen ; 
after  which,  put  in  the  bar-handle,  standard,  and  lever  (or 
wedge  and  knees,  if  a  Smith  press).  Turn  the  nuts  on  the 
suspending-rods,  so  as  to  compress  the  springs  just  enough  to 
give  the  platen  a  quick  retrograde  motion,  observing  at  the 
same  time  to  get  the  surface  of  the  platen  parallel  with  the 
surface  of  the  bed. 

After  having  put  the  press  together  and  levelled  it  by  means 
of  a  spirit-level,  be  particular  not  to  raise  the  end  of  the  ribs 
by  the  gallows,  but  let  it  go  under  rather  loose,  which  will 
have  a  tendency  to  make  the  bed  slide  with  more  ease  on  the 
ribs. 

SETTING  UP  THE  ROLLER-STAND, 

The  roller-stand  containing  the  distributing  cylinder  should 
be  regulated  to  the  height  of  the  press,  bringing  the  shelf  or 
bridge  even  with  the  corner  irons,  and  of  sufficient  distance 
from  the  bed  to  allow  it  to  run  clear ;  the  stand  should  then  be 
firmly  braced,  as  the  constant  turning  of  the  rounce  is  very 
apt  to  loosen  it ;  meanwhile  being  cautious  to  observe  that  the 
rounce,  in  its  revolutions,  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the 
frame  of  the  tympan  when  up.  The  jjosition  of  the  distri- 
buting cylinder  should  be  sufficiently  high  to  allow  the  two 
composition  rollers,  at  least  one  inch  apart,  to  rest  on  its  top 
without  danger  of  touching  the  shelf  or  bridge  in  front.  It 
is  advantageous  to  nail  two  narrow  strips  of  sole  leather  on 
the  face  of  the  shelf,  about  eight  or  ten  inches  from  each 
end,  which,  acting  as  bearers,  cause  the  rollers  to  pass  very 
smoothly  over  them. 


COMPOSITION  ROLLERS, 


223 


The  roller-handle  while  in  use  should  lie  in  a  horizontal 
position,  the  back  end  being  supported  by  a  bar  of  wood  or 
iron  running  parallel  with  the  distributing  cylinder.  There 
should  be  a  notch,  or  hook,  about  two  inches  from  the  end  of 
the  handle,  to  catch  on  the  wooden  supporter,  to  prevent  the 
rollers  from  jumping  forward  wliile  distributing  or  changing. 
It  is  also  necessary  to  have  a  back-board  for  the  end  of  the 
roller  to  strike  against  in  coming  off  the  form,  to  prevent  the 
rollers  from  falling  backward. 

The  ink-block  is  placed  about  five  or  six  inches  to  the  righr 
of  the  roller-handle,  and  about  on  a  level  with  it.  It  is  fur- 
nished with  the  ink-slice,  and  a  brayer,  or  a  small  roller  about 
four  or  five  inches  long,  and  of  the  same  circumference  with 
the  larger  rollers,  being  cast  in  the  same  mould. 


COMPOSITION  ROLLERS, 

Put  the  glue  in  a  bucket  or  pan,  and  cover  it  with  water; 
let  it  stand  until  more  than  half  penetrated  with  water,  taking 
care  that  it  shall  not  soak  too  long,  and  then  pour  it  off  and  let 
it  remain  until  it  becomes  soft,  when  it  will  be  ready  for  the 
melting  kettle.  This  is  a  double 
vessel,  like  a  glue  kettle.  Put 
the  soaked  glue  into  the  inner 
vessel,  and  as  much  water  in 
the  outer  boiler  as  it  will  con- 
tain when  the  inner  vessel  is 
placed  in  it.  When  the  glue  is 
all  melted  (if  too  thick,  add  a 
little  water),  the  molasses  may 
be  slowly  poured  into  it,  and 
well  mixed  with  the  glue  by 
frequent  stirring.  When  pro- 
perly prepared,  the  composi- 
tion does  not  require  boiling 
more  than  an  hour.  Too  much 
boiling  candies  the  molasses, 
and  the  roller,  consequently,  will  be  found  to  lose  its  suction 
much  sooner.  In  proportioning  the  material,  much  depends 
upon  the  weather  and  temperature  of  the  place  in  which  the 
rollers  are  to  be  used.  Eight  pounds  of  glue  to  one  gallon  of 
sugar-house  molasses,  or  syrup,  is  a  very  good  proportion  for 


MELTING   KETTLE. 


224  COMPOSITION  ROLLERS. 

summer,  and  four  pounds  of  glue  to  one  gallon  of  molasses  for 
winter  use. 

For  hand-press  rollers  more  molasses  should  be  used,  as 
they  are  not  subject  to  so  much  hard  usage  as  cylinder-press 
rollers,  and  do  not  require  to  be  as  strong ;  for  the  more  mo- 
lasses that  can  be  used  the  better  will  be  the  roller.  Before 
pouring  a  roller,  the  mould  should  be  perfectly  clean,  and 
well  oiled  with  a  swab,  but  not  to  excess,  as  too  much  oil 
makes  the  face  of  the  roller  seamy  and  ragged.  The  end 
pieces  should  then  be  oiled,  and,  together  with  the  cylinder, 
placed  in  the  mould,  the  upper-end  piece  being  very  open,  to 
allow  the  composition  to  pass  down  between  the  interior  of  the 
mould  and  the  cylinder.  The  cylinder  must  be  well  secured 
from  rising,  before  the  composition  is  poured  in,  by  placing  a 
stick  upon  the  end  of  it,  sufficiently  long  to  reach  above  the 
end  of  the  mould,  and  be  tied  down  with  twine.  The  com- 
position should  be  poured  very  slowly,  and  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  cause  it  only  to  run  down  one  side  of  the  cylinder,  allow- 
ing the  air  to  escape  freely  up  the  other. 

If  the  mould  is  filled  at  night,  the  roller  may  be  drawn  the 
next  morning ;  but  it  should  not  be  used  for  at  least  twenty- 
four  hours  after,  except  in  very  cold  weather. 

To  determine  when  a  roller  is  in  order  for  working,  press 
the  hand  gently  to  it :  if  the  fingers  can  be  drawn  lightly  and 
smoothly  over  its  surface,  it  may  be  said  to  be  in  order ;  but 
should  it  be  so  adhesive  that  the  fingers  will  not  glide  smoothly 
over  its  surface,  it  is  not  sufficiently  dry,  and  should  be  ex- 
posed to  the  air. 

Boilers  should  not  be  washed  immediately  after  use,  but 
should  be  put  away  with  the  ink  on  them,  as  it  protects  the 
surface  from  the  action  of  the  air.  When  washed  and  exposed 
to  the  atmosphere  for  any  length  of  time,  they  become  dry  and 
skinny.  They  should  be  washed  about  half  an  hour  before 
using  them.  In  cleaning  a  new  roller,  a  little  oil  rubbed  over 
it  will  loosen  the  ink :  and  it  should  be  scraped  clean  with  the 
back  of  a  case-knife.  It  should  be  cleaned  in  this  way  for 
about  one  week,  when  ley  may  be  used.  IN^ew  rollers  are 
often  spoiled  by  washing  them  too  soon  with  ley.  Camphene 
may  be  substituted  for  oil ;  but,  owing  to  its  combustible  na- 
ture, it  is  objectionable,  as  accidents  may  arise  from  its  use. 

Mr.  Hansard,  an  eminent  English  printer,  says,  "  Take 
glue,  made  from  the  cuttings  of  parchment  or  vellum,  fine 


COVERING  TYMPANS.  225 

green  molasses,  pure  as  from  the  sugar-refiners,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  the  substance  called  Paris-white,  and  you  will 
have  every  ingredient  requisite  for  good  composition.  The 
proportion  as  follows : — 

Glue,  2  lbs.         Molasses,  6  lbs.         Paris-white,  i  lb. 

Put  the  glue  in  a  little  water  for  a  few  hours  to  soak  ;  pour  off 
the  liquid ;  put  the  glue  over  the  fire,  and  when  it  is  dissolved 
add  the  molasses,  and  let  them  be- well  incorporated  together 
for  at  least  an  hour;  then,  with  a  very  fine  sieve,  mix  the 
Paris-white,  frequently  stirring  the  composition.  In  another 
hour,  or  less,  it  will  be  fit  to  pour  into  the  mould." 


COVERING  TYMPANS, 

The  tympans  are  generally  covered  with  parchment.  They 
should  be  of  an  even  thickness,  and  about  two  inches  and  a 
half  wider  and  three  inches  longer  than  the  tympans.  Tym- 
pans have  been  sometimes  covered  with  linen,  which,  on 
account  of  its  evenness,  would  answer  the  purpose ;  but  it  is 
so  apt  to  stretch,  that  the  tympans  become  slack  in  a  short 
time,  and  bag  (as  it  is  termed),  and  thus  slur  the  impression. 
Silk  is  excellent  for  fine  work. 

The  pressman  spreads  as  much  good  paste  on  the  edges  of 
the  skin  as  will  cover  the  frame  of  the  tympan,  which  is  also 
well  pasted.  He  then  lays  the  skin  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
frame,  with  the  flesh  side  to  face  the  type,  and  draws  it  regu- 
larly, as  tight  as  possible,  on  all  sides.  The  part  of  the  skin 
that  comes  on  the  grooves  of  the  tympan  which  receive  the 
point-screws,  is  cut  and  wrapped  round  the  inside  edge  of  the 
grooves,  which  admits  a  free  passage  for  the  screws.  After 
having  fastened  the  skin  on  the  sides  of  the  tympan,  he  draws 
it  toward  the  joints  which  receive  the  frisket,  and  with  a  knife 
cuts  across  these  joints  to  let  them  through  the  skin;  he  then 
puts  the  frisket-pins  through  the  parchment,  and  makes  that 
end  of  the  tympan  fast.  He  next  proceeds  to  the  lower  joints, 
and  brings  the  skin  as  tight  as  he  can  round  that  part  of  the 
tympan.  The  point-screws  and  duck-bill  are  then  put  qn, 
which  prevent  the  skin  from  starting.  The  inner  tympan,  or 
drawer,  is  covered  in  the  same  manner.  To  prevent  their 
warping  when  the  skin  begins  to  draw,  pieces  of  furniture  or 


226  WETTING  PAPER. 

wood  of  any  kind  should  be  placed  across  the  centre  till  they 
are  perfectly  dry. 

The  skins  are  put  on  either  wet  or  dry :  if  dry,  they  should 
be  afterward  well  wet,  which  will  make  them  give  somewhat ; 
but  when  they  dry  they  will  contract,  and  by  this  means  will 
be  rendered  much  tighter  than  they  would  be  if  put  on  wet. 


WETTING  PAPER. 

The  size  of  the  wetting-trough  should  be  about  two  inches 
longer  and  wider  than  the  largest-sized  paper,  folded,  that  is 
to  be  wet  in  it,  and  about  six  inches  deep.  It  should  have  a 
cover  with  hinges  on  the  left  side,  that  the  cover  may  fall  over 
on  that  side,  and,  resting  horizontally,  serve  for  a  shelf  to  lay 
the  paper  upon  previous  to  wetting  it. 

Having  received  a  certain  amount  of  paper  from  the  ware- 
houseman, the  pressman  lays  one  heap  on  the  shelf  attached 
to  the  wetting-trough,  laying  the  first  token  across  the  heaj) 
with  the  back  of  the  quires  toward  his  right  hand,  that  he  may 
know  when  to  tn^-n  the  token-sheet,  and  that  he  may  more 
readily  catch  at  the  back  of  each  quire  with  that  hand,  for  the 
purpose  of  dipping  it.  He  then  places  the  paper-board  with 
its  breadth  before  him  on  his  right,  on  a  table,  laying  a  wrapper 
or  a  waste  sheet  of  paper  on  the  board,  to  prevent  soiling  the 
first  sheet  of  the  heap. 

He  then  takes  a  quire  by  the  centre  of  the  back  with  his 
right  hand,  and  the  edge  of  it  in  his  left,  and,  closing  his  hands 
a  little,  that  the  quire  may  bend  downward  between  his  hands, 
he  dips  the  back  of  the  quire  into  the  left-hand  side  of  the 
trough,  and,  relinquishing  his  hold  with  the  left  hand,  draws 
the  quire  briskly  through  the  water  with  his  right.  As  the 
quire  comes  out,  he  quickly  catches  the  edge  of  it  again  in  his 
left  hand,  and  brings  it  to  the  heap,  and,  by  lifting  his  left 
hand,  bears  the  under  side  of  the  quire  off  the  paper  pre- 
viously laid  down,  till  he  has  placed  the  quire  in  an  even  posi- 
tion ;  if  the  paper  be  weak  and  spongy,  he  draws  the  quire 
through  the  water  quickly;  if  strong  and  stubborn,  slowly. 
To  place  the  quire  in  an  even  position,  he  lays  the  back  of  it 
exactly  upon  the  open  crease  of  the  former,  and  then  lets  the 
side  of  the  quire  in  his  left  hand  fall  flat  down  upon  the  heap, 
and,  discharging  his  right  hand,  brings  it  to  the  edge  of  the 


WETTING  PAPER,  227 

quire,  and,  with  the  assistance  of  his  left  thumb,  still  in  its 
first  position,  opens  or  divides  either  a  third  or  a  half  of  the 
quire,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  paper ;  then,  spreading 
the  lingers  of  his  right  hand  as  much  as  he  can  through  the 
length  of  the  quire,  turns  over  his  opened  division  of  it  upon 
his  right-hand  side  of  the  heap. 

A  different  process  must  be  used  in  the  wetting  of  drawing 
and  plate  papers.  These  papers  are  usually  sent  in  quite  fiat ; 
that  is,  not  folded  into  quires  or  half-quires.  The  best  method 
of  wetting  these  papers  is  to  use  a  brush,  such  as  is  called  a 
banister  brush ;  and,  instead  of  dipping  the  paper  into  the 
trough,  he  lays  it  on  the  paper-board  by  the  side  of  the  trough, 
and,  dipping  the  brush  into  the  water,  he  shakes  it  gently  over 
the  whole  surface,  to  give  an  equal  degree  of  moisture  to-aU 
parts;  and  then  proceeds  as  before  described.  The  drawing- 
paper,  being  very  hard-sized  in  the  making,  will  require  the 
brush,  and  much  water,  three,  four,  or  even  five  times  a  quire ; 
while  the  plate-paper  should  have  as  little  water  as  it  is  pos- 
sible to  give  it,  so  as  to  cover  it  all  over ;  and  twice  a  quire  will 
often  be  too  much.  This  same  mode  must  also  be  adopted  in 
wetting  paper  of  extraordinary  dimensions. 

Having  wet  his  first  token,  he  doubles  down  a  corner  of  the 
upper  sheet  of  it  on  his  right  hand,  so  that  the  farther  corner 
may  be  a  little  toward  the  left  of  the  crease  in  the  middle  of 
the  heap,  and  the  other  corner  may  hang  out  on  the  near  side 
of  the  heap  about  an  inch  and  a  half.  This  sheet  is  called  the 
token-sheet,  being  a  mark  for  the  pressman,  when  he  is  at 
work,  to  show  how  many  tokens  of  that  heap  are  worked  off. 

Having  wet  the  whole  heap,  he  lays  a  wrapper,  or  waste 
sheet  of  paper,  upon  it ;  then,  three  or  four  times,  takes  up  as 
much  water  as  he  can  in  the  hollow  of  his  hand,  and  throws  it 
over  the  waste  sheet,  to  moisten  and  soak  downward  into  the 
wet  part  of  the  last  division  of  the  quire ;  after  which,  he  places 
in  the  heap  the  label  which  the  warehouseman  must  always 
furnish  for  each  heap,  and  upon  which  are  written  the  title  of 
the  work  and  the  date  of  wetting,  one-half  hanging  out  so  as 
to  be  easily  read. 

The  paper  should  be  pressed  for  twelve  hours,  and  then 
carefully  turned  by  each  three  or  four  sheets,  so  that  no  lift  be 
relaid  in  the  same  position  with  respect  to  the  adjoining  lift ; 
at  the  same  time,  every  fold  and  wrinkle  must  be  carefully 
rubbed  out  bv  the  action  of  the  hand,  so  that  nothing  but  a 


228  MAKING  MEADY  A  FORM, 

flat  and  even  surface  shall  remain ;  the  heap  should  then  be 
pressed  for  about  twenty-four  hours  in  a  screw-press,  and  it 
will  be  in  good  order  for  working. 

The  wetting  of  paper  must,  in  all  cases,  depend  entirely 
upon  its  fabric ;  and,  since  the  printer  has  seldom  the  choice 
of  the  paper,  it  will  require  all  his  skill  and  patience  to  adapt 
his  labours  to  the  materials  upon  which  he  is  to  work.  The 
texture  of  the  paper  must  be  suited  to  the  fineness  and  tena- 
city of  the  ink.  To  attempt  doing  fine  work  upon  common 
paper  is  lost  labour.  A  paper  to  take  the  best  ink  must  be 
made  entirely  of  linen  rags,  and  not  bleached  by  chemicals, 
A  fine  hand-made  paper,  fabricated  a  sufficient  time  to  get 
properly  hardened,  and  well  and  equally  saturated  with  size, 
so  as  not  to  imbibe  more  water  in  one  part  of  the  dip  than  in 
another,  nor  resisting  the  water  like  a  duck's  back,  is  most 
suitable  for  fine  printing. 

BLANKETS, 

Woollen  blankets  are  unnecessary  when  a  book  is  printed 
from  new  type.  Nothing  more  should  be  used  than  a  sheet  or 
two  of  paper,  as  in  fine  work  only  the  face  of  the  type  should 
show  in  the  impression.  But  when  the  types  or  plates  are 
worn  and  rounded,  fine  cassimere  or  broadcloth  should  be 
used  in  the  tympan.  In  this,  as  in  all  matters  connected  with 
artistic  typography,  the  pressman  must  display  good  judg- 
ment and  discretion, 

MAKING  BEADY  A  FOBM, 

Before  a  form  is  laid  on  the  press,  the  pressman  should 
carefully  wipe  the  bottom  of  the  type  and  the  bed  perfectly 
clean ;  for,  if  a  particle  of  sand  remain  on  it,  it  will  cause  a 
type  or  two  to  rise,  and  not  only  make  a  stronger  impression, 
but  probably  injure  the  letters. 

An  octavo  form  should  be  laid  on  the  press  with  the  signa- 
ture-page to  the  left  hand,  or  nearest  the  platen ;  a  duodecimo, 
or  its  combinations,  with  the  signature  at  the  right  hand,  or 
nearest  the  tympan.  The  form  should  be  laid  under  the  centre 
of  the  platen,  and  properly  quoined  up.  The  tympan  is  then 
laid  down,  and  wet  if  necessary,  and  paper  or  blanket  put  in. 
It  was  formerly  customary  to  wet  the  tympans  for  all  works, 


MAKING  BEADY  A  FORM.  229 

and  even  jobs  of  almost  every  description ;  but,  since  the  in- 
troduction of  fine  printing,  and  particularly  iron  presses,  the 
custom  is  wellnigh  banished,  excepting  for  very  heavy  forms, 
composed  with  old  letter,  which,  of  course,  require  more  soft- 
ness to  bring  them  off.  After  the  inner  tympan  or  drawer  is 
put  in,  it  is  fastened  with  the  hooks  for  that  purpose,  which 
serve  to  keep  it  from  springing  out.  The  tympan  being  lifted 
up,  a  sheet  of  the  paper  to  be  worked  is  folded  in  quarto,  and 
the  short  crease  is  placed  over  the  middle  of  the  grooves  of  the 
short  cross,  if  it  lie  in  the  centre  of  the  form,  as  in  octavo.  In 
a  form  of  twelves,  the  paper  is  folded  in  thirds,  and  the  long 
crease  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  long  cross,  and  the  short 
cross  over  the  grooves.  The  sheet  lying  evenly  on  the  form, 
the  tympan  is  brought  down,  and  a  gentle  pull  will  cause  the 
paper  to  adhere,  when  it  should  be  pasted  to  the  tympan  and 
fully  stretched.  Tlie  points  are  next  screwed  to  the  tympan, 
for  large  paper  short-shanked  points  being  used,  and  long- 
shanked  for  small  paper.  In  twelves,  the  points  must  be 
placed  at  precisely  equal  distances  from  the  edge  of  the  paper. 
In  octavo,  the  off-point  may  be  a  little  larger  than  the  near 
one,  as  it  enables  the  pressman  to  detect  a  turned  heap  when 
working  the  reiteration  or  second  side. 

When  a  pres»is  continued  upon  the  same  work,  the  quoins 
on  the  off-side  of  the  bed  may  remain  and  serve  as  gauges  for 
the  succeeding  forms ;  for,  if  the  chases  are  equal  in  size,  the 
register  will  be  almost,  if  not  quite,  perfect. 

The  following  operations  are  comprised  in  the  term  of 
making  ready  the  form : — 

1.  The  frisket  should  be  covered  with  stout  even  paper,  in  the 
manner  described  for  putting  on  parchment,  the  paper  being 
carefully  placed  on  the  inside  of  the  frame  so  as  to  lie  close  to 
the  tympan,  and  to  confine  the  sheet  in  its  place  when  laid  on 
for  printing.  When  the  paste  is  dry,  the  frisket  is  put  on  the 
tympan,  and,  after  inking  the  form,  an  impression  pulled 
upon  it.  The  frisket  is  then  taken  off  and  laid  orf  a  board,  or 
on  the  bank,  and  the  impression  of  the  pages  cut  out  with  a 
sharp  knife  about  a  Pica  em  larger  than  the  page.  After  being 
replaced  on  the  tympan,  it  is  advisable  to  put  a  few  cords 
across,  to  strengthen  the  bars  of  paper,  and  to  keep  the  sheets 
close  to  the  tympan.  When  the  margin  is  too  small  to  admit 
bars  of  paper,  it  is  necessary  to  work  with  cords  only. 

2.  The  form  should  be  examined,  to  see  that  it  is  properly 

20 


230  MAKING  READY  A  FORM. 

locked  up  and  planed  down :  that  no  letters  or  spaces  lie  in 
the  white  lines  ot  the  form,  nor  between  the  lines  in  leaded 
matter. 

3.  White  pages  which  occur  in  a  form  must  not  be  cut  out ; 
but,  if  the  page  be  already  cut  out,  a  piece  of  paper  must  be 
pasted  on  the  frisket,  to  cover  the  white  page  in  the  form,  and 
a  bearer  put  on  to  keep  the  adjoining  pages  from  having  too 
hard  an  impression.  Some  pressmen  use  reglets,  others  furni- 
ture cut  to  a  proper  height,  and  a  third  class  adopt  cork,  which, 
from  its  elasticity,  is  very  useful.  Spring  bearers,  made  of 
hard  paper  rolled  up,  are  also  employed  to  guard  the  sides 
and  bottoms  of  light  and  open  pages,  when  there  is  an  in- 
clination to  slur. 

4.  The  pressman  must  examine  whether  the  frisket  bites ; 
that  is,  whether  it  keeps  off  the  impression  from  any  part  of 
the  pages. 

5.  He  must  consider  whether  the  catch  of  the  frisket  stands 
either  too  far  forward  or  backward ;  if  forward,  he  may  be 
much  delayed  by  its  falling  down,  and,  if  backward,  it  will 
come  down  too  slowly,  and  thus  retard  the  progress  of  the 
work,  and  not  unfrequently  cause  the  sheet  to  slip  out  of  its 
proper  place.  He  must,  therefore,  place  the  catch  so  that  the 
frisket  may  stand  a  little  more  than  perpendicularly  back- 
ward, that,  when  lightly  tossed  up,  it  may  just  stand,  and  not 
come  back. 

6.  He  must  fit  the  gallows  so  that  the  tympan  may  stand  as 
much  toward^  an  upright  as  he  can ;  because  it  is  the  sooner 
let  down  upon  the  form  and  lifted  up  again.  But  yet  he  must 
not  place  it  so  upright  as  to  prevent  the  white  sheets  of  the 
paper  from  lying  secure  on  the  tympan. 

7.  The  range  of  the  paper-bank  should  not  stand  at  right 
angles  with  the  bed  of  the  press ;  but  the  farther  end  of  the 
bank  should  be  placed  so  that  the  near  side  may  make  an 
angle  of  about  seventy-five  degrees  with  the  near  side  of  the 
bed. 

8.  The  heap  of  paper  should  be  set  on  the  horse  on  the  near 
end  of  the  paper-bank,  near  the  tympan,  yet  not  touching  it. 
The  uppermost  or  outside  sheet  should  be  laid  on  the  bank ; 
and  the  pressman  then  takes  four  or  five  quires  off  his  heap, 
and  shakes  them  at  each- end,  to  loosen  the  sheets,  till  he  finds 
he  has  sufficiently  loosened  or  hollowed  the  heap.  Then,  with 
the  nail  of  his  right-hand  thumb,  he  draws  or  slides  forward 


PULLING.  231 

the  upper  sheet,  and  two  or  three  more  commonly  follow  gra- 
dually with  it,  over  the  hither  edge  of  the  heap,  to  prepare 
those  sheets  ready  for  laying  on  the  tympan. 

9.  He  must  next  pull  a  revise  sheet,  which  must  be  sent  up 
to  the  overseer  for  a  final  revision,  and  for  examining  whether 
any  letters  have  dropped  out  of  the  form  in  putting  it  on  the 
press,  &c. 

10.  While  the  sheet  is  undergoing  a  revision,  the  pressman 
should  proceed  to  make  register,  if  half-sheet-wise,  which  is 
done  by  pulling  a  waste  sheet,  and  turning  it  (without  ink- 
ing, as  the  sheets  may  afterward  be  used  for  slip  sheets), 
being  particular  not  to  stretch  the  point-holes  m  the  least,  or 
to  draw  the  hand  along  the  sheet  in  leaving  it.  In  making 
register,  the  points  must  be  knocked  up  or  down  in  such  a 
direction  as  will  bring  the  first  impression  under  the  last, 
knocking  the  point  only  half  the  distance  apparent  on  the 
sheet.  If  register  cannot  be  made  with  the  points,  the  diffi- 
culty must  then  be  either  in  the  furniture,  the  length  of  the 
pages,  or  in  the  springing  of  the  cross-bars,  from  the  forms 
being  locked  up  by  careless  comi)ositors,  who  commence  at 
one  quarter  of  the  form,  and  lock  it  up  tightly,  and  so  go 
around,  instead  of  gently  tapping  it  at  opposite  sides  till  the 
whole  is  equally  tightened.  In  locking  up  a  form,  the  quoins 
at  the  feet  should  be  gently  struck  first,  to  force  up  the  pages 
and  prevent  their  hanging ;  but,  in  unlocking,  the  side  quoins 
must  be  first  slackened. 

Altering  the  quoins  will  not  make  good  register,  when  the 
compositor  has  not  made  the  white  exactly  equal  between  all 
the  sides  of  the  crosses.  The  pressman,  therefore,  will  ascertain 
which  side  has  too  much  or  too  little  white,  and,  unlocking 
the  form,  will  take  out  or  put  in  as  many  leads  or  reglets  as 
will  make  good  register. 

PULLING, 

In  taking  a  sheet  off  the  heap,  the  pressman  places  himself 
almost  straight  before  the  near  side  of  the  tympan,  but  nimbly 
twists  the  upper  part  of  his  body  a  little  backward  toward  the 
heap,  the  better  to  see  that  he  takes  but  one  sheet  off.  This  he 
loosens  from  the  rest  of  the  heap  by  drawing  the  back  of  the 
nail  of  his  right  thumb  quickly  over  the  bottom  part  of  the 
heap,  and,  receiving  the  near  end  of  the  sheet  with  his  lef£- 


232  PULLING. 

hand  fingers  and  thumb,  catches  it  by  the  farther  edge  with 
his  right  hand,  about  four  inches  from  the  upper  corner  of  the 
sheet,  and  brings  it  swiftly  to  the  tympan :  having  the  sheet 
thus  in  both  his  hands,  he  lays  the  farther  side  and  two  ex- 
treme corners  of  the  sheet  down  even  upon  the  farther  side 
and  extreme  farther  corners  of  the  tympan-sheet.  In  the 
reiteration,  care  should  be  taken  to  draw  the  thumb  on  the 
margin,  or  between  the  gutters,  to  avoid  smearing  the  sheet. 
The  sheet  being  properly  laid  on,  he  supports  it  in  the  centre 
by  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  while  his  right  hand,  being 
disengaged,  is  removed  to  the  back  of  the  ear  of  the  frisket,  to 
bring  it  down  upon  the  tympan,  laying  at  the  same  moment 
the  tympan  on  the  form.  He  then,  wdth  his  left  hand,  grasps 
the  rounce,  and  quickly  runs  the  form  under  the  platen ;  and, 
after  pulling,  he  gives  a  quick  and  strong  pressure  upon  the 
rounce,  to  run  the  carriage  out  again.  Letting  go  the  rounce, 
he  places  the  fingers  of  his  left  hand  toward  the  bottom  of  the 
tympan,  to  assist  the  right  hand  in  lifting  it  up,  and  also  to  be 
ready  to  catch  the  bottom  of  the  sheet  when  the  frisket  rises, 
which  he  conveys  quickly  and  gently  to  the  catch :  while  it  is 
going  up,  he  slips  the  thumb  of  his  left  hand  under  the  near 
lower  corner  of  the  sheet,  which,  with  the  aid  of  his  two  fore- 
fingers, he  raises,  the  right  hand  at  the  same  time  grasping  it 
at  the  top  in  the  same  manner.  Lifting  the  sheet  carefully 
and  expeditiously  off"  the  points,  and  nimbly  twisting  about 
his  body  toward  the  paper-bank,  he  carries  the  sheet  over  the 
heap  of  white  paper  to  the  bank,  and  lays  it  down  upon  a 
waste  sheet  or  wa-apper;  but,  while  it  is  coming  over  the 
white-paper  heap,  though  he  has  the  sheet  between  both  his 
forefingers  and  thumbs,  yet  he  holds  it  so  loosely  that  it  may 
move  between  them  as  on  two  centres,  as  his  body  twists 
about  from  the  side  of  the  tympan  toward  the  side  of  the 
paper-bank. 

When  the  pressman  comes  to  a  token-sheet,  he  undoubles 
it,  and  smooths  out  the  crease  with  the  back  of  the  nails  of  Ins 
right  hand,  that  the  face  of  the  letter  may  print  upon  smooth 
paper ;  and,  being  printed  off",  he  folds  it  again,  as  before,  for 
a  token-sheet,  when  he  works  the  reiteration. 

Having  worked  off  the  white  paper  of  a  form  of  twelves,  he 
places  his  right  hand  under  the  heap,  and,  his  left  hand  sup- 
porting the  end  near  him,  turns  it  over  on  the  horse,  with  the 
'printed  side  downward.    If  the  form  be  octavo,  he  places  his 


RULES  AND  REMEDIES.  233 

left  hand  under  the  heap,  supporting  the  outside  near  end  with 
his  right  hand,  and  turns  it  one  end  over  the  other.  All  turn- 
ing of  the  paper  for  reiteration  is  treated  in  one  of  these  modes. 
In  performing  this  operation,  he  takes  from  the  heap  only  as 
much  at  once  as  he  can  well  handle  without  disordering  the 
evenness  of  the  sides  of  the  paper. 

Having  turned  the  heap,  he  proceeds  to  work  it  off,  as  be- 
fore described,  except  that  with  the  left  hand  he  guides  the 
point-holes  over  the  points,  moving  the  sheet  with  the  right 
hand,  more  or  less,  to  assist  him  in  so  doing.  The  token- 
sheets,  as  he  meets  with  them,  he  does  not  fold  down  again. 

RULES  AND  REMEDIES  FOR  PRESSMEN, 

About  every  five  or  six  sheets  a  small  quantity  of  ink 
should  be  taken;  yet  this  rule  is  subject  to  some  variation 
from  the  nature  of  the  work  and  quality  of  the  ink.  A  form 
of  large  type  or  solid  matter  will  require  ink  to  be  taken 
more  frequently,  and  a  light  form  of  small  type  less  fre- 
quently. During  the  intervals  in  which  the  roller-boy  is  not 
employed  in  brayering  out  or  taking  ink,  he  should  be  almost 
constantly  engaged  in  distributing  or  changing  his  rollers. 
He  should  invariably  take  ink  on  the  back  roller,  as  it  will 
the  sooner  be  conveyed  to  the  other  roller,  and,  consequently, 
save  time  in  distributing.  When,  through  carelessness,  too 
much  ink  has  been  taken,  it  should  be  removed  by  laying  a 
piece  of  clean  waste  paper  on  one  of  the  rollers,  and  distri- 
buting them  till  the  ink  is  reduced  to  the  proper  quantity. 

If  letters,  quadrates,  or  furniture  rise  up  and  black  the 
paper,  they  should  be  put  down,  and  the  quarter  locked  up 
tighter. 

If  any  letters  are  battered,  the  quarter  they  are  in  must  be 
unlocked,  and  perfect  ones  put  in  by  the  compositor. 

When  bearers  become  too  thin  by  long  working,  they  should 
be  i-eplaced  by  thicker  ones. 

When  the  form  gets  out  of  register,— which  will  often  happen 
by  the  starting  of  the  quoins  which  secure  the  chase,— it  must 
be  immediately  put  in  again,  as  there  can  scarcely  be  a  greater 
defect  in  a  book  than  a  want  of  uniformity  in  this  particular. 

If  picks,  produced  by  bits  of  paper,  composition,  or  film  of 
ink  and  grease  or  filth,  get  into  the  form,  they  must  be  re- 
moved with  the  point  of  a  pin  or  needle;  but  if  the  form  is 
20* 


234  RULES  AND  REMEDIES. 

much  clogged  with  them,  it  should  be  well  rubbed  over  with 
clean  ley,  or  taken  off  and  washed :  in  either  case,  before  the 
pressman  goes  on  again,  it  should  be  made  perfectly  dry  by 
pulling  several  waste  sheets  upon  it,  in  order  to  suck  up  the 
water  deposited  in  the  cavities  of  the  letter. 

The  pressman  should  accustom  himself  to  look  over  every 
sheet  as  he  takes  it  off  the  tympan :  he  will  thus  be  enabled 
not  only  to  observe  any  want  of  uniformity  in  the  colour,  but 
also  to  detect  imperfections  which  might  otherwise  escape 
notice. 

In  order  to  make  perfect  uniformity  in  the  colour,  the 
roller-boy  should  keep  his  ink  well  brayered  out  with  the 
small  roller,  in  proper  quantities  for  the  work  in  hand,  and 
also  should  change  his  rollers  well  after  taking  ink,  and  at 
other  times.  The  rollers  are  changed  by  moving  the  roller- 
handle  slowly  to  the  right  and  left,  while  the  crank  is  being 
turned  briskly  with  the  left  hand. 

Torn  or  strained  sheets  met  with  in  the  course  of  work  are 
thrown  out  and  placed  under  the  bank.  Creases  and  wrinkles 
will  frequently  ajDpear  in  the  sheets  when  the  paper  has  been 
carelessly  wet :  these  should  be  carefully  removed  by  smooth- 
ing them  out  with  the  back  of  the  nails  of  the  right  hand. 

If  the  frame  of  the  tympan  rub  against  the  platen,  it  will 
inevitably  cause  a  slur  or  mackle ;  this  can  easily  be  remedied 
by  moving  the  tympan  so  as  to  clear  the  platen.  The  joints  or 
hinges  of  the  tympan  should  be  kept  well  screwed  up,  or  slur- 
ring will  be  the  consequence.  When  the  thumb-piece  of  the 
frisket  is  too  long,  it  always  produces  a  slur :  this  can  be  pre- 
vented by  filing  off  a  part  of  it.  Loose  tympans  will  at  all 
times  slur  the  work,  and  great  care  must  therefore  be  observed 
in  drawing  them  perfectly  tight.  The  paper  drying  at  the 
edges  will  also  cause  a  slur :  this  may  be  remedied  by  wetting 
the  edges  frequently  with  a  sponge. 

Slurring  and  mackling  will  sometimes  happen  from  other 
causes:  it  will  be  well  in  such  cases  to  paste  corks  on  the 
frisket,  or  to  tie  as  many  cords  as  possible  across  it,  to  keep 
the  sheet  close  to  the  tympan. 

The  pressman  should  make  the  boy  roll  slowly,  or  the 
rollers  will  be  apt  to  jump,  and  cause  Si  friar.  To  prevent  the 
rollers  from  jumping  or  bounding,  bridges  or  springs  made 
of  thin  steel,  to  reach  across  the  gutters,  may  be  used :  these 
springs  should  taper  off  at  the  ends,  and  have  an  oblong  hole 


THE  LEY-TROUGir,  235 

in  each  end,  through  which  they  may  be  tacked  to  the  gutter- 
sticks.  In  very  open  forms,  it  may  be  necessary  to  put  bearers 
or  pieces  of  reglet  where  the  blank  pages  occur  at  the  end  of 
the  form,  to  prevent  one  end  of  the  roller  from  falling  down 
and  leaving  a  friar  at  the  opposite  end.  This  difficulty  may, 
in  a  great  measure,  be  obviated  by  imposing  the  form  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  bring  the  blank  pages  in  the  centre.  This 
mode  should  always  be  adopted  for  title-pages  and  other  light 
matter. 

Before  the  pressman  leavas  his  work,  he  covers  the  heap  of 
paper  by  first  turning  down  a  sheet  like  a  token-sheet,  to 
show  where  he  left  off,  and  then  putting  a  quantity  of  the 
worked-off  sheets  on  it,  and  a  paper-board  if  convenient. 
Laying  the  blanket  on  the  heap  after  leaving  off  work  is  a  bad 
custom.  If  the  paper  be  rather  dry,  it  will  be  well  to  put 
wet  wrappers  on  it,  after  damping  the  edges  well.  If  the  form 
be  clean,  he  puts  a  sheet  of  waste  paper  between  the  tympan 
and  frisket,  and  lays  them  down  on  the  form ;  if  it  be  dirty,  it 
must  be  rubbed  over  with  clean  ley,  and  several  waste  sheets 
pulled  on  it,  as  before  directed,  to  suck  the  dirty  ley  out  of  the 
cavities  of  the  letter.  On  his  return  to  work  in  the  morning, 
he  takes  care  to  wet  the  tympan,  provided  the  type  be  worn. 
If  there  should  be  any  pages  in  the  form  particularly  open, 
the  parts  of  the  tympan  where  they  fall  must  not  be  wetted. 

THE  LEY-TROUGH 

The  form  being  worked  off,  it  is  the  pressman's  duty  to 
wash  it  clean  from  every  particle  of  ink,  not  only  for  the 
cleanly  working  and  well  standing  of  the  letter  in  the  subse- 
quent composing,  but  to  save  his  own  time  in  making  ready 
when  the  same  letter  gets  to  press  again.  Many  an  hour  is 
lost  from  not  bestowing  a  minute  or  two  in  thoroughly 
cleansing  and  rinsing  the  form. 

For  this  purpose,  printing-offices  are  provided  with  a  ley- 
trough,  suspended  on  a  cross-frame,  and  swinging  by  iron 
ears  fixed  somewhat  out  of  the  precise  centre,  so  that  the 
gravity  of  the  trough  will  cause  it  to  fall  in  a  slanting  position 
forward.  This  trough  is  lined  with  lead,  the  top  front  edge 
being  guarded  from  the  pitching  of  the  forms  by  a  plate  of 
iron.  The  form  having  been  placed  in  the  trough,  on  its  side, 
the  pressman  takes  hold  of  the  rim  of  the  chase  by  tlie  hook. 


236  PUTTING  UP  AN  ADAMS  PBESS. 

or  instrument  for  that  purpose,  and,  laying  it  gently  down, 
pours,  the  ley  upon  it,  and  sluices  it  by  swinging  the  trough 
on  its  pivots  two  or  three  times  to  and  fro ;  then,  taking  the 
ley-brush,  he  applies  it  to  the  whole  form,  type,  furniture,  and 
chase ;  the  ley  is  then  let  out  into  a  receptacle,  and  the  form 
well  rinsed  with  clean  water,  by  swinging  the  trough  as  be- 
fore ;  the  form  is  then  lifted  out,  and  consigned  to  the  care  of 
the  compositor. 

The  ley  is  made  of  pot  or  pearl  ash,  or,  what  is  better,  of 
concentrated  ley.  A  large  earthen  jar  is  usually  chosen  for 
the  purpose ;  a  sufficient  quantity  of  ash  or  concentrated  ley 
is  added  to  the  water  to  make  it  bite  the  tongue  sharply  in 
tasting. 

The  ley-brush  is  made  large,  the  hairs  close,  fine,  and  long, 
in  order  not  to  injure  the  type,  while  sufficient  force  is  applied 
to  search  every  interstice  in  the  letter  where  the  ink  can  have 
insinuated  itself. 

PUTTING  UP  AN  ADAMS  PRESS. 

First,  put  one  of  the  side  pieces  of  the  frame  in  an  upright 
position,  with  a  block  under  each  of  its  ends  two  or  three 
inches  deep.  Then  put  to  its  place  against  this  side  piece  the 
large  end  piece  of  the  frame,  and  secure  the  two  firmly  together 
by  means  of  the  bolts  belonging  to  them. 

Next,  put  to  its  place  against  said  side  piece,  the  vibrating 
frame  on  which  rest  the  springs  which  help  to  sustain  the 
bed  and  form  of  type,  a  journal  at  one  corner  of  said  vibrating 
frame  being  placed  in  a  bearing  provided  to  receive  it  on  the 
lower  part  of  said  side  piece.  Then  put  one  end  of  the  bottom 
bar,  or  *' winter," — a  heavy  bar  which  sustains  the  force  of 
the  impression, — into  an  oblong  square  opening  in  the  lower 
part  of  said  side  piece,  that  side  of  the  bar  on  which  provision 
is  made  to  receive  the  toggle  joints  being  toward  the  large  end 
piece  of  the  press-frame. 

Next,  put  to  its  place  against  said  side  piece,  and  secure 
with  bolts,  \hQ  light  end  piece  of  the  press-frame ;  and  then 
insert  one  end  of  a  small  rod  which  serves  as  a  stay  to  the 
upper  rails  of  the  frame,  into  a  hole  made  to  receive  it,  not  far 
from  midway  of  said  upper  rails. 

Next,  put  up  the  other  side  piece  of  the  frame,  with  blocks 
under  its  ends,  as  in  the  case  of  the  first  piece ;  put  the  bolts 


PUTTING  UP  AN  ADAMS  PRESS,  237 

by  which  it  is  secured  into  their  places,  and,  after  levelling 
and  squaring  the  frame,  turn  all  the  bolts  and  nuts  up  hard, 
so  as  to  secure  the  frame  in  all  parts  with  entire  firmness. 
The  bed  must  now  be  put  into  its  place,  the  projections  on 
ends  being  made  to  enter  grooves  formed  on  the  side  pieces 
of  the  press-frame,  to  guide  it  in  its  motions  up  and  down. 

Next,  put  the  toggle  joints  into  their  places,  their  lower 
parts  being  jointed  to  the  bottom  bar,  and  their  top  ends  to 
the  under  side  of  the  bed,  and  the  caps  and  screws  which  hold 
them  to  their  places  being  put  firmly  together.  The  nature  of 
the  parts  and  the  marks  will  indicate  how  this  must  be  done. 
The  pieces  which  serve  somewhat  as  guides  to  keep  the  bed 
level  as  it  rises  and  falls,  should  next  be  put  on  and  bolted  to 
their  places  under  and  at  the  ends  of  the  bed.  The  impression 
cam  (goose  neck)  should  next  be  connected  with  the  "bottom 
bar,"  and  the  bed  so  placed  as  to  bring  the  roller  in  tlie  middle 
joint  of  the  toggle  joints,  in  such  position  as  to  allow  it  to  enter 
the  mouth  of  the  impression  cam  when  said  cam  shall  be  raised 
up  and  pressed  forward.  Next,  put  the  cams  which  operate 
the  bellows  and  fly  for  taking  off  the  sheets  on  the  large  gear- 
wheel shaft,  the  gear  being  on  it,  and  then  put  the  shaft  into 
its  bearings  on  the  large  end  piece  of  the  frame. 

Next,  put  the  fly-wheel  shaft  with  the  pinion  on  it  into  its 
bearings,  taking  care  to  have  the  pinion  and  large  gear -wheel  go 
together^  as  marked. 

Next,  put  into  its  place  the  long  shaft  which  has  a  bevel 
gear  on  each  end  of  it  to  drive  the  distribution  cylinder,  and 
secure  the  box  that  supports  said  shaft.  This  shaft  goes  out- 
side of  the  frame,  and  the  bevel- wheel  oh  one  end  is  made  to 
gear  into  another  bevel-wheel,  which  is  next  to  be  put  on  the 
fly-wheel  shaft  and  forced  up  to  a  shoulder  on  said  shaft. 
There  is  a  cover  to  go  over  one  pair  of  these  gear-wheels. 

Next,  put  the  fly-wheel  on  to  its  shaft,  and  force  it  up  close 
to  the  bevel-wheel. 

Next,  attach  the  large  connecting  rod,  or  "pitman,"  to  the 
large  part  of  the  crank-pin  on  the  large  gear-wheel,  and  also 
to  the  impression  cam;  and  then,  by  turning  the  fly-wheel, 
raise  up  the  bed  and  put  the  springs  which  help  to  sustain  its 
weight  into  their  places.  To  do  this,  after  the  bed  has  been 
raised  up,  first  raise  the  vibrating  frame  on  which  the  springs 
rest  as  high,  on  blocks,  as  will  admit  of  the  springs  being 
pressed  into  their  places. 


238  PUTTING  UP  AN  ADAMS  PRESS. 

The  bed  may  then  be  drawn  down  by  turning  the  fly-wheel 
until  the  rods  on  which  the  springs  slide  enter  holes  or  boxes 
in  the  said  vibrating  frame  provided  to  receive  them,  and  until 
the  bed  shall  be  near  enough  to  the  vibrating  frame  to  allow 
the  frame  to  be  connected  with  the  bed  by  means  of  two  flat 
connecting  rods  provided  for  that  purpose. 

The  platen  should  next  be  put  on  in  its  place,  and  care  must 
be  had  to  put  the  shafts  and  wheels  which  sustain  it  on  the  top 
rails  of  the  frame  according  to  their  marks  ;  but,  before  these 
are  put  on,  the  small  brass  pieces,  on  which  hang  the  rollers 
that  carry  the  travelling  tympan-sheet,  should  be  connected 
in  their  places  on  the  corners  of  the  platen.  Next,  put  to  the 
ends  of  the  platen  the  small  pieces  provided  with  thumb- 
screws, to  prevent  the  impression  bolts  from  turning  while 
the  press  is  in  operation. 

Now,  screw  the  impression  bolts  into  the  ends  of  the  bottom 
bar,  first  having  put  between  said  bolts  and  the  frame  certain 
small  blocks  of  iron  provided  to  keep  them  at  a  proper  dis- 
tance from  the  frame.  In  order  to  bring  the  work  square,  the 
Impression  bolts  must  be  turned  into  the  bottom  bar,  until 
certain  small  marks  which  are  made  upon  the  threads  of  their 
screws  shall  come  even  with  the  top  surfaces  of  the  ends  of 
said  bar,  and  so  that  the  hole  marked  No.  1  on  the  head  of 
each  bolt  shall  come  opposite  to  the  points  of  one  of  the  before- 
mentioned  thumb-screws. 

The  impression  bolts  will  now  be  in  their  proper  relative 
positions,  and  will  rest  on  set  screws  in  projections  on  the 
lower  parts  of  the  frame,  which  set  screws  are  adjusted  to 
their  proper  height  before  the  press  leaves  the  manufactory, 
and  do  not  afterward  need  to  be  altered.  The  impression 
bolts  are  kept  in  a  perpendicular  position  by  means  of  clamps, 
which  are  bolted  on  over  them  to  the  sides  of  the  frame ;  and, 
whenever  said  bolts  are  turned  for  the  purpose  of  increasing 
or  lessening  the  impression,  care  must  be  had  that  one  bolt  be 
turned  as  much  as  the  other.  The  holes  in  their  heads  are 
numbered  for  this  purpose. 

A  cross  piece  which  rests  near  to  the  bottom  bar,  on  the 
ledges  that  project  from  the  lower  part  of  the  frame,  is  next  to 
be  put  into  its  place. 

This  cross  piece  serves  to  support  one  end  of  the  rocker 
shaft  which  is  used  to  disengage  the  main  connecting  rod,  so 
as  to  prevent  an  impression  being  given,  whenever  it  may  be 


PUTTING  UP  AN  ADAMS  PRESS,  239 

necessary  to  do  so.  It  likewise  supports  a  C  spring,  on  which 
the  impression  cam  falls,  and  an  oblique  stud,  which  the 
toggle  joints  bear  against  when  in  their  place  of  rest. 

In  order  to  get  the  rocker  shaft  for  preventing  impression 
into  its  place,  disconnect  the  large  connecting  rod  from  the 
impression  cam,  and  let  the  cam  turn  down  on  to  the  afore- 
said cross  piece,  and  then  put  the  shaft  into  its  bearings. 

The  impression  cam  is  now  to  be  lifted  up  and  again  attached 
to  the  connecting  rod,  and  then  the  bed  may  be  raised  up  by 
turning  the  fly-wheel ;  after  which,  said  C  spring  and  oblique 
stud  may  be  bolted  to  their  places  on  said  cross  piece,  and  the 
bolts  which  hold  the  cross  piece  to  the  frame  may  be  put  in 
and  screwed  up  firmly. 

Next,  put  into  bearings  on  the  lower  rails  of  the  frame  the 
rocker  shaft  which  has  arms  for  moving  the  frisket  carriage ; 
and  also  the  shaft  which  has  the  vibrating  cam  (duck's  bill) 
on  it,  for  moving  the  arms  that  move  the  frisket  carriage. 
Now,  a  stud  that  carries  the  friction  rollers  is  to  be  put  into 
slots  in  the  arms  that  move  the  frisket  carriage,  said  friction 
rollers  being  made  to  come  within  the  oblong  crooked  open- 
ings in  the  last-named  cams.  There  are  cap-pieces  which  fit 
the  journals  of  the  two  last-named  shafts,  and  which  are  now 
to  be  put  on  to  their  places  within  the  journal  boxes.  And 
there  are  cap-pieces  with  a  set  screw  in  the  middle  of  each, 
which  are  to  be  bolted  on  firmly  over  the  first-named  cap- 
pieces,  the  set  screws  having  first  been  turned  back,  so  that 
when  the  cap-pieces  are  drawn  down  hard  by  the  screws  on  to 
their  seats,  the  journals  shall  not  be  bound  in  their  boxes. 
After  the  outer  cap-pieces  have  been  bolted  on  as  aforesaid, 
the  set  screws  may  be  turned  in  until  the  under  cap-pieces  are 
secured  firmly  over  the  journals,  but  not  so  closely  as  to  pre- 
vent said  journals  from  moving  freely  in  their  boxes. 

After  the  set  screws  are  properly  adjusted,  secure  them  by 
means  of  the  tightening  nuts. 

Next,  put  the  frisket  carriage  in  its  place,  and  connect  it 
with  the  arms  that  move  it.  Then  put  the  four  arms  on  to  the 
small  rocker  shaft  which  operates  the  bellows  that  causes  the 
sheets  to  rise  from  the  frisket,  and  put  said  shaft  into  bearings 
which  are  Jpcated  on  the  inside  of  the  frame  near  to  the  fly- 
wheel shaft.  Two  of  the  aforesaid  arms  are  made  to  bear 
against  the  under  side  of  the  bellows,  so  as  to  lift  it ;  another 
of  them  is  used  to  hang  weight  upon ;  and  the  fourth  has  a 


240  PUTTING   UP  AN  ADAMS  PRESS, 

roller  in  its  end,  which  lies  upon  a  cam  which  operates  it,  and 
causes  the  weight  to  rise  until  the  proper  moment,  when,  by 
means  of  a  sudden  falling  off  in  the  cam,  the  said  weight  is 
allowed  to  fall,  and  give  a  sudden  puff  of  wind  from  the  bel- 
lows. Now,  set  the  cam  which  operates  the  bellows  close  up 
to  the  slioulder  on  the  main  shaft,  and  so  that  the  marks  on  the 
cam  and  shaft  shall  coincide  with  each  other ;  then,  by  means 
of  the  set  screw,  secure  the  cam  firmly.  Next,  put  the  bellows 
into  its  place :  it  is  suspended  by  four  bars,  two  of  which  rest 
on  a  stay  rod  that  crosses  the  frame  near  the  bed,  and  the 
others  are  bolted  on  to  the  under  side  of  the  top  rail  of  the 
large  end  piece  of  the  frame. 

Next,  put  the  pointing  board  into  its  place.  This  is  sup- 
ported at  its  upper  edge  by  pivots,  which  rest  in  holes  in  the 
top  ends  of  two  small  pillars ;  and  these  pillars  (or  studs) 
should  first  be  put  on  to  the  pivots,  and  then  the  shanks  of 
said  pillars,  both  at  the  same  time,  must  be  put  into  the  holes 
provided  to  receive  them,  in  the  top  of  the  press-frame.  Next, 
put  the  frame  that  contains  a  cluster  of  mahogany  rollers  into 
its  place.  This  goes  under  the  pointing-board,  and  is  sup- 
ported at  two  of  its  corners  by  pivots  which  rest  in  holes  made 
for  the  purpose  in  the  sides  of  the  pillars  that  support  the 
pointing-board.  The  other  corners  of  this,  frame,  as  Avell  as 
the  two  lower  corners  of  the  pointing-board,  rest  upon  the  top 
edges  of  the  press-frame,  near  the  platen.  Said  roller-frame 
must  be  put  in  with  the  vibrating  roller  uppermost.  Next, 
put  the  pieces  on  to  the  press-frame  that  support  the  rocker 
shaft  that  carries  the  fly  for  throwing  off  the  sheets ;  put  said 
rocker  shaft  into  its  place,  the  spiral  spring  which  turns  it  in 
one  direction  being  at  the  same  time  put  on  to  the  shaft,  and 
then  put  the  fly -frame  on  to  the  said  rocker  shaft.  Next,  put 
the  board  that  covers  the  cog-wheels  into  its  place,  and  upon 
this  board  put  the  small  pillars,  or  studs,  and  bar  of  wood 
upon  which  the  fingers  of  the  fly  rest  when  receiving  the 
sheets.  Next,  put  into  its  place  upon  the  end  of  the  press- 
frame  to  which  the  fly  is  attached,  the  small  shaft  on  which 
are  several  shives,  or  band  pulleys.  The  journals  of  this  shaft 
run  in  pivot-holes  made  in  the  top  ends  of  the  small  brass 
studs,  which  stand  in  holes  made  in.  the  top  side  of  the  frame 
to  receive  them.  Both  studs  must  first  be  put  on  to  the  jour- 
nals, and  then  the  two  at  the  same  time  put  into  their  places. 

Next,  put  into  its  place  on  the  end  of  the  press-frame,  a 


PUTTING  UP  AN  ADAMS  PRESS,  241 

-  rocker  shaft  that  has  two  arms  upon  it,  one  of  said  arms 
having  a  roller  in  its  end  for  a  cam  to  operate  against,  and  the 
other  arm  being  provided  with  teeth  on  its  outer  end,  which 
gear  into  a  toothed  pinion  on  the  fly  rocker  shaft.  A  cam, 
before  mentioned,  on  the  main  shaft,  operates  this  rocker 
shaft  and  the  fly.  This  is  raised  and  lowered  by  means  of  a 
lever  which  passes  along  by  the  front  side  of  the  machine,  be- 
tween it  and  the  person  who  lays  on  the  sheets  to  be  printed. 
Next,  bolt  on  to  the  front  side  of  the  press  a  piece  of  wood 
which  has  a  series  of  holes  in  it,  by  means  of  which  the  said 
lever  by  which  the  table  is  moved  up  and  down  is  held  in 
such  position  as  may  be  desirable. 

Next,  put  on  to  the  inside  of  the  press-frame  a  bent  lever 
which  has  a  ketch  at  one  end,  by  means  of  which  the  fly  is 
held  down  when  no  sheet  is  received  upon  it.  The  lever  is 
operated  by  the  foot  of  the  pointer.  A  spring  by  which  the 
motion  of  the  fly  is  modified  is  next  put  on  to  one  end  of  the 
pieces  which  support  the  journals  of  the  fly  rocker  shaft. 
Next,  at  the  bed  end  of  the  press,  bolt  to  the  press-frame  the 
two  brackets  w^hich  form  slides  upon  whicli  to  support  the 
fountain ;  and  then  put  into  their  places  the  levers  which  sup- 
port the  composition  roller  that  carries  the  ink  from  the  foun- 
tain to  the  distribution  cylinder. 

Next,  put  on  to  the  inside  of  the  press-frame,  near  to  the 
end,  the  two  hangers  that  support  the  distribution  cylinder. 
Upon  these  hangers  are  small  brass  boxes  in  which  run  tlie 
journals  of  a  vibrating  cylinder,  to  distribute  the  ink  late- 
rally, and  also  the  journals  of  two  composition  distribution 
rollers.  Next,  put  into  its  place  the  said  vibrating  cylinder, 
the  horos  to  receive  the  journals  of  which  are  situated  in  the 
lowest  part  of  said  hangers. 

Next,  bolt  on  two  small  pieces  which  have  a  friction  roller 
in  each  to  opiate  against  the  ends  of  the  vibrating  cylinder, 
to  cause  it  to  move  to  and  fro  in  the  direction  of  its  length. 

Next,  attach  to  the  inside  of  the  press-frame,  over  the  place 
for  the  distribution  cylinder,  a  frame  which  has  in  it  two 
wooden  distribution  rollers.  These  rollers  are  connected  to 
each  other  by  toothed  wheels  on  their  ends.  This  roller-frame 
is  hung  to  the  press-frame  by  means  of  a  bolt  at  each  of  two 
of  its  corners,  and  the  other  two  corners  are  supported  on 
brackets,  one  of  which  projects  inward  from  each  side  of  the 
press-frame  near  to  the  bed.    Next,  put  in  two  thumb-screws 

21 


242  PUTTING   UP  AN  ADAMS  PRESS. 

which  serve  to  hold  the  distribution-roller  frame  down  in  its 
place:  these  screws  are  put  through  the  sides  of  the  press- 
frame  from  the  outside  near  the  top,  and  not  far  from  the  end. 

Next,  hang  the  large  distributing  cylinder. 

Next,  put  on  in  front  of  the  distribution  cylinder  the  frame- 
work in  which  runs  a  carriage  carrying  a  short  composition 
roller,  which  is  made  to  travel  from  end  to  end  of  the  distribu- 
tion cylinder,  to  and  fro,  by  being  pressed  obliquely  against  it. 

This  carriage  runs  upon  a  rod  supported  by  hangers  from 
the  two  corners  of  the  press-frame ;  and  it  may  be  taken  out 
at  any  time  by  first  taking  out  the  rod  on  which  it  travels. 

Next,  put  on  to  the  inside  of  the  press-frame,  near  its  upper 
part,  and  near  the  edge  of  the  platen  toward  the  distribution 
cylinder,  the  wedge-like  "click"  which  serves  to  push  back 
the  slide  of  the  nipper-frame,  to  relieve  the  grip  of  the 
nippers. 

Then  put  the  nipper-frame  into  its  place  on  the  frisket  car- 
riage, and  bolt  on  to  the  insides  of  the  upper  rails  of  the  press- 
frame  the  two  cams  which  raise  the  nippers  and  nipper-frame 
when  advancing  toward  the  pointing  board  to  take  the  sheet 
which  is  to  be  printed.  Next,  put  on  to  the  pointing  board 
the  small  bent  lever  that  operates  the  "  points,"  the  end  of  the 
lever  that  connects  with  the  point  levers  being  put  between 
the  point  levers  and  the  sheet-iron  plate  of  the  pointing  board. 
The  other  end  of  said  lever,  when  the  pointing  board  is  in  its 
place  for  work,  passes  down  by  the  side  of  a  spring  on  the 
inside  of  the  press-frame,  which  serves  to  let  down  and  hold 
up,  alternate!}^,  the  points  at  the  proper  periods  in  the  opera- 
tion of  the  machine. 

The  pointing  board  should  always  be  lifted  and  lowered 
down,  when  raised  up  for  any  purpose,  by  taking  hold  of  the 
side  of  the  board  next  to  the  person  who  points  the  sheets; 
otherwise  tlje  lower  end  of  said  bent  lever  will  ^ot  come  into 
its  proper  place. 

Next,  screw  a  brass  hook  on  to  the  under  side  of  the  frame 
of  the  pointing  board.  This  serves  to  hold  up  both  the  point- 
ing board  and  the  cluster  of  mahogany  rollers  in  nearly  a 
perpendicular  position,  by  being  hooked  on  to  the  corner  of 
the  roller-frame.  These  parts  are  fastened  up  in  this  way  in 
order  that  the  platen  may  be  drawn  off  from  over  the  bed,  to 
put  on  forms,  and  for  other  purposes. 

Strong  cotton  tape  bands  may  now  be  put  on  to  the  rollers 


PUTTING   UP  AN  ADAMS  PRESS,  243 

and  shives,  upon  which  to  carry  the  printed  sheets  from  the 
frisket  on  to  the  fly.  One  set  of  these  bands  pass  around  the 
roller  nearest  to  the  platen,  and  also  around  the  roller  that  is 
so  hung  as  to  be  capable  of  vibration.  Said  bands  should  be 
made  sufficiently  short  to  bring  the  arms  on  which  the 
vibrating  roller  hangs  into  a  perpendicular  position. 

The  other  set  of  bands  pass  around  the  second  roller  from 
the  platen,  over  the  third  roller  from  the  platen,  under  the 
vibrating  roller,  and  around  the  shive  pulleys  between  the 
Angers  of  the  fly. 

To  drive  the  mahogany  rollers  and  the  shive  pulleys,  a  flat 
band  runs  from  a  pulley  on  the  fly-wheel  shaft  ov^er  a  pulley 
on  the  shive-puUey  shaft;  and  then  a  small  round  leather 
band  is  put  around  a  grooved  pulley  on  the  shive-pulley  shaft, 
crossed  and  carried  around  the  vibrating  roller.  The  drawer, 
or  frame  which  answers  to  the  tympan-frame  of  a  hand-press, 
is  best  covered  with  parchment  or  India-rubber  cloth.  The 
latter  is  now  preferred  by  printers  when  it  is  good,  and  of  even 
softness. ,  If  it  is  not  of  even  softness,  an  even  impression  can- 
not be  produced  with  it.  Fine  linen  will  answer,  but  it  Avill 
not  admit  of  so  fine  an  impressi(jn  as  either  of  the  other  sub- 
stances. 

It  will  be  obvious  to  the  person  who  sets  the  i^ress  up,  how 
the  drawer  goes  on  to  the  face  of  the  platen.  One  edge  of  it  is 
held  up  by  lapping  a  little  on  to  the  edge  of  the  platen,  and  tlie 
other  hy  slide  bolts  at  the  coi^ners.  The  same  kmd  of  blanket- 
ing may  be  used  as  in  the  hand-press ;  but,  when  the  drawer 
is  covered  with  India-rubber  cloth,  no  blanketing  is  needed, 
except  on  a  very  heavy  form.  The  tyinpan-sheet  should  con- 
sist of  a  very  long  sheet  of  strong  smooth  paper,  the  width 
being  equal  to  the  length  of  the  platen  ;  or  else  it  should  con- 
sist of  a  web  of  the  finest  kind  of  cambric.  This  is  drawn  under 
the  platen,  and  its  ends  attached  to  rollers,  one  of  which  rollers 
lies  in  bearings  at  one  side  of  the  platen,  and  another  at  the 
other  side  of  the  platen.  By  means  of  these  rollers,  the  tympan- 
sheet  is  moved  from  place  to  place,  as  it  becomes  soiled  by  use, 
until  it  has  been  used  as  much  as  proper  throughout  its  length. 
It  will  bear  using  several  times  over.  If  it  consists  of  cambric, 
it  may  be  washed.  For  some  kinds  of  printing,  it  is  best  that 
the  tympan-sheet  should  be  moved  periodically  the  whole  width 
of  the  form  at  a  time ;  and  in  this  case  the  rollers  for  the  purpose 
must  be  turned  by  hand.    But  generally  it  is  more  convenient 


244  MAKING  HEADY 

for  the  rollers  to  be  turned  by  the  machinery  in  such  manner 
as  to  move  the  tympan-sheet  a  very  short  distance  at  each  im- 
pression. To  effect  this  movement,  there  is  a  small  lever  sus- 
pended from  the  end  of  one  of  the  spindles  of  one  of  the  tympan- 
sheet  rollers,  and  this  lever  carries  a  "click"  that  operates  on 
a  ratchet  wheel  on  the  end  of  the  roller  spindle,  to  turn  it. 
The  lever  is  operated  by  a  small  crank  screwed  on  to  the  outer 
end  of  the  main  shaft,  the  crank  operating  on  the  lever  by 
means  of  a  rod  connected  to  the  crank  by  one  end,  and  ope- 
rating on  the  lever  by  a  hook  at  the  other  end.  The  hook  end 
of  the  rod  is  supported  by  a  piece  screwed  into  the  side  of  the 
frame  for  the  purpose,  the  rod  sliding  in  a  bearing  formed  in 
said  piece.  Very  fine  flannel  is  used  by  some  for  tympan- 
sheets.  The  table  that  the  "  heap"  is  placed  upon  stands  upon 
the  platen,  and  its  top  is  adjustable.* 

MAKING  READY  ON  CYLINDER  PRESSES. 

Make  clean  the  bed  of  the  press  and  the  impression  seg- 
ment of  the  cylinder.  Adjust  the  bearers  a  trifle  above  ordi- 
nary type  height.  See  that  the  impression  screws  have  an  even 
bearing  on  the  journals,  and  that  the  cylinder  fairly  meets  the 
bearers.    Select  a  suitable  tympan  or  impression  surface. 

The  tympan  may  be  the  India-rubber  cloth  which  is  fur- 
nished with  the  press,  a  thick  woollen  lapping  cloth  or  blanket, 
several  sheets  of  thick  calendered  printing  paper,  or  one  or 
more  smooth  and  hard  pasteboards.  Each  of  these  materials 
have  merits  not  to  be  found  in  any  other.  Upon  the  proper 
selection  of  the  tympan  the  press  work  in  great  measure  de- 
pends, and  the  pressman  should  be  thus  guided  in  making 
choice. 

A  pasteboard  tympan  is  most  suitable  for  wood-cuts,  for 
perfectly  new  type,  and  for  the  best  kinds  of  press  work.  It  is 
not  suitable  for  miscellaneous  work,  nor  for  heavy  forms,  nor 
mixed  old  and  new  type.  If  the  overlaying  is  properly  exe- 
cuted, a  pasteboard  tympan  will  enable  the  pressman  to  show 
a  sharper  edge  and  a  more  delicate  impression  of  the  type 
than  can  be  possible  with  any  other,  and  it  will  wear  the  type 
less  than  any  other.  But  it  will  require  a  very  tedious  and 
careful  making  ready,  or  it  will  prove  very  destructive  to  type. 


*  R.  Hoe  &  Co.'s  Catalogue. 


OJSr  CYLINDER  PBJ^SSES.  245 

A  woollen  blanket  is  best  adapted  for  old  stereotype  plates, 
for  very  old  type  which  has  been  rounded  on  the  edges,  for 
posters  with  large  wood  type,  and  for  all  common  work  which 
requires  a  clear  but  dull  impression.  For  such  work  a  woollen 
blanket  will  enable  the  pressman  to  make  ready  a  form  more 
quickly  than  with  any  other  material;  but  it  is  injurious  to 
new  type,  and  incapable  of  producing  a  tine  and  sharp  im- 
pression. 

Thick  paper  is  much  used  for  book-work.  It  also  answers 
well  for  script  circulars  and  leaded  forms.  It  will  not  answer 
so  well  for  mixed  old  and  new  type,  nor  for  table-work  with 
unequal  heights  of  brass  rule,  nor  for  mixed  large  and  small 
type.  It  will  prove  most  serviceable  for  the  average  of  light 
and  fine  press-work. 

The  India-rubbei"  cloth  combines  many  good  qualities  not 
found  in  other  tympans :  it  has  something  of  the  density  of 
the  pasteboard,  the  hardness  and  evenness  of  paper,  and  the 
flexibility  of  the  blanket,  combined  with  an  elasticity  pecu- 
liarly its  own.  It  will  compass  a  greater  variety  of  work  than 
any  other;  posters,  script  circulars,  news  and  book  forms, 
stereotype  plates,  and  old  or  new  type,  can  all  be  well  printed 
with  an  India-rubber  blanket.  When  it  is  intended  to  make 
one  tympan  answer  for  all  kinds  of  work,  the  India-rubber 
blanket  will  be  found  decidedly  superior  to  all  others;  but 
when  very  extra  press-work  is  wanted,  the  tympan  must  be 
specially  adapted  to  the  form  of  tyi)e. 

There  are  forms  for  which  none  of  these  tympans  are  spe- 
cially suitable.  For  such  cases  careful  pressmen  combine  two 
or  more  together, — as  Welsh  flannel  over  rubber,  or  thin  rub- 
ber over  pasteboard  or  under  paper.  These,  however,  are  ex- 
ceptional cases,  and  are  only  thus  combined  when  very  good 
press-work  is  wanted  from  imperfect  materials.  Careful  ob- 
servation of  the  quality  of  the  imi^ression  given  by  each  style 
of  tympan  will  teach  a  pressman  how  to  combine  to  the  best 
advantage.  As  it  requires  experience  and  discrimination,  an 
arbitrary  rule  cannot  be  given. 

Whatever  may  be  the  material  selected,  the  tympan  must 
be  stretched  very  tightly  over  the  cylinder.  All  labour  in  over- 
laying is  but  thrown  awaj^  if  this  is  not  carefully  attended  to. 
A  rubber  or  woollen  blanket  can  be  secured  at  one  end  of  the 
cylinder  by  small  hooks  projecting  inward,  while  it  may  be 
laced  tightly  with  saddler's  thread  at  the  other  end ;  or,  by 

21^^ 


246  MAKING  READY 

sewing  on  that  end  of  the  blanket  a  piece  of  canvas,  it  may  be 
wound  tightly  around  the  reel,  and  kept  secure  by  the  pawl 
and  ratchet. 

But  paper  and  pasteboard  require  a  different  process,— viz. : 
Take  a  piece  of  Nonpareil  cherry  reglet  of  the  full  length  of 
the  cylinder.  Trim  down  the  paper  or  pasteboard  to  the  width 
of  the  bed  between  the  bearers,  but  leave  it  a  little  longer  than 
the  impression  segment  of  the  cylinder.  Then  crease  the 
pasteboard  at  a  uniform  distance  of  half  an  inch  from  the 
narrower  end,  and  lay  this  creased  part  on  the  flat  edge  of  the 
impression  segment  of  the  cylinder,  under  the  grippers.  Put 
the  reglet  over  this,  and  bring  down  the  clamps  hard  on  the 
reglet,  so  as  to  bind  all  securely.  When  this  is  done,  a  thin 
web  of  muslin  may  be  stretched  over  the  whole,  in  the  same 
way  in  which  a  blanket  is  laid  on,  and  rolled  up  tightly, 
which  will  prevent  any  slipping  of  tj^e  board  or  of  the  over- 
lays pasted  on  it. 

A  large  poster,  or  newspaper  form,  or  any  large  form  with 
old  type,  will  require  a  soft  roller  with  much  suction.  Book- 
,work,  wood-cuts,  or  fine  job-work,  will  require  a  harder  roller, 
with  very  smooth,  elastic,  and  clinging  surface.  Coloured  inks 
are  best  printed  with  a  still  harder  roller  and  with  much  less 
suction.  All  rollers  should  be  perfectly  clean,  and  free  from 
cracks  or  holes.  The  suitableness  of  these  rollers  cannot  well 
be  explained  by  words:  such  a  knowledge  will  be  best  ac- 
quired by  observation  and  experience.  It  fnay,  however,  be 
necessary  to  state  that  one  roller  will  not  answer  for  all  styles 
of  press-work :  the  quality  of  the  work,  the  size  and  wear  of 
the  type,  and  the  speed  of  the  press,  must  control  the  press- 
man in  his  choice. 

Posters,  with  large  wood  type,  require  a  semi-fluid  ink,  but 
not  surcharged  with  oil.  Ordinary  news-work  requires  a 
better  grade,  more  tacliy,  and  finely  ground.  Good  book- 
work  should  have  a  stiffer-bodied  ink,  soft,  smooth,  and  with 
little  oil.  Job  ink,  which  is  made  expressly  for  presswork 
on  dry  paper,  should  be  used  only  for  such  work.  Book  and 
job  inks  are  not  convertible:  an  ink  for  wet  paper  will  not 
work  well  on  dry  paper,  and  vice  versd.  Very  fine  press- 
work — such  as  wood-cuts,  or  letter-press  upon  enamelled 
paper — calls  for  an  ink  impalpablj^  fine,  very  stiff,  of  brilliant 
colour,  and  nearly  or  absolutely  free  from  oil. 

Every  job-ofiice  should  keep  four  grades  of  ink, — news, 


ON  CYLINDER  PRESSES.  247 

book,  job,  and  wood-cut.  They  can  be  compounded  (if  no 
ink-manufacturer  is  near)  with  each  other,  or  reduced  with 
varnish  to  suit  any  form.  Good  press-work  is  impossible 
without  good  inks. 

Charge  the  ink  fountain  with  the  ink  selected,  and  keep  it 
well  covered,  to  protect  it  from  paper  dust.  Turn  down  the 
screws,  and  cut  off  all  the  ink  evenly.  When  the  form  is 
ready,  turn  on  the  ink  cautiously,  and  wait  for  ten  or  twelve 
impressions  before  again  altering  the  screws.  For  small  forms 
and  short  numbers  of  any  piece  of  press- work  in  coloured 
ink  or  extra  ink,  a  fountain  is  not  necessary.  The  ink  may 
be  applied  with  a  brayer  or  palette-knife. 

The  adjustment  of  the  margin  is  the  next  process.  Although 
type  can  be  printed  from  any  quarter  of  the  bed,  it  will  be 
found  most  judicious  to  lay  all  forms  close  to  the  back  part  of 
the  bed,  and  equidistant  between  the  bearers.  This  will  secure 
a  good  impression,  give  a  fair  average  margin  to  every  form, 
and  allow  the  full  use  of  the  bed  for  a  large  form,  without  re- 
setting the  cylinder.  The  bed  and  c^dinder  travel  together, 
and  the  grippers,  which  bring  down  the  sheet  to  the  form, 
should  barely  lap  over  the  back  part  of  the  bed.  So  long  as 
the  toothed  cylinder  wheel,  and  the  short  toothed  rack  on  the 
side  of  the  bed,  rcunain  undisturbed,  the  grippers  will  always 
pass  over  the  bed  in  exactly  the  same  place.  When  the  grip- 
pers are  in  this  i^osition  (slightly  lapping  over  the  back  of  the 
bed),  take  measurement  of  the  distance  between  the  back 
edge  of  the  bed  and  the  point  of  one  of  the  nearest  grippers. 
With  a  piece  of  reglet  cut  a  gauge  exactly  corresponding  to 
this  measurement.  Let  no  form  be  laid  upon  the  press  until 
the  distance  between  the  type  and  the  edge  of  the  chase  tallies 
with  the  gauge.  This  will  prevent  the  grippers  from  closing 
on  the  form  and  crushing  the  tyi^e.  If  the  chase  will  not  admit 
of  so  wide  a  margin,  or  if  an  extra  margin  is  wanted  on  the 
sheet,  put  a  piece  of  furniture  of  the  extra  width  behind  the 
chase:  the  margin  can  thus  be  increased  or  diminished  at 
pleasure. 

A  book  form  may  be  locked  up  in  a  chase  so  large,  with  the 
type  so  far  from  the  edge  of  the  cliase,  that  the  grippers  will 
bring  down  the  sheet  in  such  a  j30sition  that  it  will  be  printed 
with  the  margin  all  on  one  side.  To  remedy  this,  the  cylinder 
must  be  reset.  Proceed  thus.  Remove  the  screw  and  washer, 
and  draw  the  intermediate  wheel  out  of  gear,  Joosen  screws  in 


248  MAKING  BEADY 

the  gauge  rack,  then  turn  the  cylinder  to  the  point  required, 
connect  the  intermediate  wheel,  adjust  the  gauge  rack,  and 
screw  up  tight. 

The  press  having  been  adjusted,  next  examine  the  form  to 
be  printed.  Not  only  see  that  it  is  gauged  correctly,  but  also 
see  that  it  is  not  locked  up  too  tightly,— that  chase,  quoins, 
letter,  and  furniture  are  all  level,  and  lie  flat  upon  the  bed. 
If  the  form  springs,  the  quoins  must  be  slackened;  if  this 
loosens  the  type  too  much,  the  justification  should  be  amended. 
Make  clean  the  type  by  rubbing  it  over  with  a  dry  brush. 
The  rollers  are  often  made  foul  and  the  colour  of  the  ink 
changed  by  dust  and  particles  of  dirt  clinging  to  the  type. 

Fasten  the  form  so  securely  on  the  bed  that  it  will  not  be 
moved  by  the  action  of  the  cylinder  or  the  rollers.  Take  a 
proof  on  its  own  paper,  using  very  little  ink.  Proceed  to  ad- 
just the  drop  guides  so  as  to  bring  the  sheet  exactly  in  the 
right  position.  Push  out  the  iron  tongues  at  the  edge  of  the 
feed-board,  and  at  equal  distances  from  each  other,  so  that 
they  will  equally  sustain  the  paper.  Slide  the  drop  guides 
along  the  rod  until  they  fall  squarely  over  the  tongues.  Set 
the  side  guide  so  that  it  will  give  a  true  margin  in  length  to 
the  sheet  to  be  printed.  Adjust  the  grippers  so  that  they  will 
seize  the  sheet  at  proper  intervals,  making  the  margin  exactly 
even  by  lengthening  or  shortening  the  drop  guides.  Then 
take  a  clean  proof  on  its  own  2^cLpe)%  exactly  in  the  right  posi- 
tion, before  making  ready,  when  it  may  be  shown  to  the 
reader.  It  frequently  happens  that  an  error  in  the  margin,  or 
an  imperfection  in  the  register,  is  thus  noticed ;  and  its  timely 
discovery  and  correction  before  overlaying  will  save  much 
time  and  trouble.  A  readable  proof  may  be  taken  before  over- 
laying, by  running  through  a  sheet  or  two  of  proof  paper. 
Make  i^egister,  if  it  is  a  book  form,  before  underlaying. 

When  every  thing  has  been  found  correct,  then  proceed  to 
regulate  the  impression.  If  the  type  is  fair,  the  proof  should 
show  a  decently  uniform  impression  ;  but  if  the  form  is  large, 
or  if  it  contains  old  and  new  or  large  and  small  type,*  then  the 
proof  will  show  an  uneven  impression.  To  rectify  this  in- 
equality, pressmen  use  many  expedients. 

1.  By  lowering  the  bearers  and  putting  on  more  impression. 
This,  of  itself,  is  a  very  poor  way ;  for  it  wears  down  new  type 
in  order  to  show  the  face  of  the  old,  and  invariably  produces 
thick  and  coarse  presswork. 


ON  CYLINDEM  PRESSES,  249 

2.  By  raising  the  low  type  to  a  proper  height  with  thick- 
nesses of  paper  under  them,  which  is  called  underlaying. 

3.  By  giving  additional  thickness  to  the  tympan  over  every 
part  of  the  form  which  shows  a  weak  impression,  which  is 
called  overlaying. 

It  is  very  rare  that  any  one  of  these  modes  will  prove  suflS- 
cient:  all  should  be  used  in  conjunction.  When  the  larger 
part  of  the  proof-sheet  shows  a  weak  impression,  almost  ap- 
proaching illegibility,  then  more  impression  should  be  added. 
When  one  side  of  the  proof-sheet  shows  a  weak  impression, 
while  that  on  the  other  side  is  full  and  clear,  then  more  im- 
pression should  be  given  to  the  paler  side.  The  impression 
should  be  made  decently  uniform  before  any  attempt  at  over- 
laying or  underlaying.  But  the  bearers  should  follow  the 
impression  screws,  both  being  raised  and  lowered  together,  in 
order  to  secure  the  type  from  the  unimpeded  force  of  the  im- 
pression cylinder.  Not  only  should  the  bearers  be  of  even 
height,  but  the  cylinder  shaft  should  always  revolve  on  a  true 
level.  If  the  impression  screws  are  carelessly  used,  and  the 
bearers  are  rashly  raised  and  lowered,  this  even  bearing  will 
soon  be  lost;  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  good  impression  will 
be  much  increased,  and  the  press  will  receive  a  serious  injury. 
For  the  same  reason,  the  bearers  should  never  be  packed  (by 
the  addition  of  cards,  as  is  usual  on  a  hand^press),  for  it  strains 
the  cylinder  and  all  its  bearings  with  an  irregular  resistance. 
The  bearers  should  be  tampered  with  even  less  than  the  im- 
pression screws.  When  the  impression  screws  are  so  set  that 
the  cylinder  gives  a  fair  uniform  impression,  they  have  done 
all  that  can  be  expected,  and  nothing  more  should  be  attempted 
by  them.  Sometimes  the  proof  may  show  that  a  cut,  or  a  line 
of  type,  or  a  set  of  brass  rules,  are  higher  than  any  other  mate- 
rial in  the  form.  But  the  impression  should  be  set  regardless 
of  this :  it  will  be  found  quicker  and  neater  to  reduce  the  im- 
pression on  one  or  two  such  high  lines,  by  cutting  out  the 
tympan-sheet  over  them,  than  it  would  be  to  underlay  and 
bring  up  all  other  tyx)es  to  such  an  irregular  height.  Pitch 
the  impression  so  that  it  will  face  the  larger  portion  of  the 
type,  and  make  the  less  conform  to  the  greater.  Those  parts 
which  are  high  must  be  cut  out  of  the  tympan,  and  those 
which  are  low  should  be  raised  by  underlays,  and  all  in- 
equalities smoothed  by  overlays. 

When  any  part  of  the  form  is  very  low,  it  will  not  answer 


250  MAKING  MEADY 

to  attempt  facing  it  with  overla^^s :  it  must  be  brought  up  to 
meet  the  inking  rollers  as  well  as  the  impression  cylinder. 
When  the  proof  shows  low  type,  cut  out  the  impression  of  it, 
raise  the  form,  and  paste  it  over  the  feet  of  the  letter.  If  some 
types  are  high  and  some  are  low,  make  proper  distinction, 
and  carefully  avoid  increasing  the  height  of  any  type  or  rule 
which  seems  to  have  a  full  impression.  Pursue  the  same 
course  when  a  marked  depression  appears  in  the  centre,  or  a 
dwindling  impression  at  the  edges.  Cut  out  that  section  which 
is  light,  and  affix  it  to  the  defective  part.  If  the  impression 
dwindles  in  any  part,  the  underlays  must  be  cut  of  irregular 
thickness  to  suit  the  tapering  off  of  the  impression.  Cut  out 
an  underlay  from  the  edge  where  the  impression  begins  to 
fade;  then  cut  another  of  smaller  size  where  it  is  utterly 
illegible;  paste  one  over  the  other,  laying  them  carefully  in 
their  proper  positions,  and  then  paste  them  all  on  the  bottom 
of  the  form,  where  it  is  needed,  taking  care  to  lay  the  smallest 
underlay  nearest  the  bed.  This  will  restore  the  type  to  a  pro- 
per level,  and  the  next  proof  should  show  a  uniform  im- 
pression. The  same  plan  will  answer  for  a  low  corner.  Use 
as  little  paste  as  possible,  thin  and  free  from  lumps.  Be  care- 
ful that  the  underlays  are  laid  on  smoothly,  without  fold  or 
wrinkle.  Cut  all  underlays  from  a  proof ;  for  the  proof  serves 
as  a  guide  both  in  cutting  and  in  affixing  to  the  form. 

Underlaying  should  not  be  done  to  any  great  extent  upon  a 
cylinder  press.  It  is  a  valuable  means  of  bringing  up  an  old 
line  of  type,  a  hollow  or  a  low  corner.  The  underlays  of  any 
type  form  should  not  constitute  more  than  one-fourth  of  the 
surface ;  if  more  than  this  is  attempted,  they  will  rarely  ever 
fail  to  work  up  the  quadrates  and  furniture.  The  action  of 
the  quickly  moving  cylinder  upon  a  form  of  type  underlaid 
with  yielding  paper,  must  create  a  spring  and  a  rocking  of  all 
the  materials  in  the  chase. 

Of  all  materials,  old  stereotype  plates  need  underlays  most, 
as  they  are  usually  very  irregular  in  height.  Thin  card  or 
pasteboard  will  be  found  preferable  to  paper  for  the  underlay- 
ing of  plates  secured  on  wood  bodies.  When  the  plates  are 
on  patent  blocks,  always  underlay  between  the  plate  and  the 
block.  Always  cut  the  underlay  for  a  plate  less  in  size  than 
the  faint  impression  would  seem  to  require.  This  will  allow 
for  the  spring  of  the  plate.  If  it  is  cut  of  full  size,  the  next  im- 
pression will  disappoint  the  pressman,  by  being  much  harder 


ON  CYLINDER  PRESSES,  251 

at  the  edges  than  he  intended.  Never  attempt  to  build  up  a 
type  form  to  a  proper  impression  entirely  or  chiefly  by  under- 
laying.       ,  I 

Underlays  should  be  put  under  all  large  and  bold-faced 
types  when  used  with  much  smaller  types,  so  as  to  raise  them 
above  the  level  of  the  others.  This  is  needed  to  give  it  closer 
rolling,  extra  supply  of  ink,  and  that  extra  force  of  impression 
to  transfer  the  ink  to  paper  which  all  large  types  require. 

When  the  type  has  been  so  levelled  by  underlays  that  all 
parts  receive  proper  bearing  from  the  inking  rollers,  and  when 
the  cylinder  has  a  corresponding  even  impression,  then  over- 
laying may  be  commenced.  For  ordinary  news,  posters,  or 
job-work,  overlaying  may  be  entirely  unnecessary ;  the  tapes 
and  fly  may  be  set,  and  the  printing  of  the  form  may  proceed 
without  further  delay.  But  fine  presswork  cannot  be  done 
without  overlays.  Underlays  are  chiefly  valuable  for  securing 
an  even  impression;  while  overlays  are  indispensable  for 
giving  delicacy  and  finish  to  tliat  impression. 

To  overlay  a  form  properly,  the  tympan  should  be  covered 
with  a  sheet  of  thin,  smooth,  and  hard  paper,  stretched  tightly. 
Then  take  a  pale  impression  on  the  tympan-sheet,  and  also 
run  through  the  press  two  or  three  proofs  on  thin  and  hard 
paper.  Examine  the  proofs  carefully  on  both  face  and  back. 
If  any  brass  rules  or  letters  appear  too  high,  cut  them  out  of 
the  tympan-sheet  in  one  or  two  thicknesses,  as  their  varying 
height  may  require.  Go  over  the  whole  proof,  examining 
every  line  carefully,  and,  by  cutting  out,  reduce  the  im- 
pression of  all  projecting  letters  to  a  uniform  standard.  For 
this,  as  for  all  other  work  on  overlays,  use  a  very  sharp  knife 
with  a  thin  point,  and  cut  on  a  smooth  surface,  so  that  there 
will  be  no  dragged  or  torn  edge  to  the  cut. 

The  next  step  should  be  to  raise  the  impression  of  those 
parts  of  the  form  when  the  type  appears  dull  or  weak.  Cut 
out  carefully,  and  paste  the  overlays  over  the  tympan  smoothly. 
Overlays  are  worse  than  useless  if  they  are  not  laid  on  firmly 
and  smoothly,  as  the  slightest  bagginess  will  cause  slur  or 
mackle.  If,  by  accident,  the  tympan-sheets  or  overlays  should 
bag  or  wrinkle,  tear  them  off,  and  commence  anew. 

Cut  out  and  overlay  the  more  prominent  parts  first ;  then 
try  another  impression,  and  from  that  cut  new  overlays  for 
minor  defects.  Thus  proceed  until  a  perfectly  smooth  and 
even  impression  is  obtained. 


252  MAKING  BEADY. 

With  common  work  it  will  be  sufficient  to  cut  overlays  in 
masses,  as  pages  or  parts  of  pages ;  but  with  fine  work  every 
line  and  letter  needs  examination,  and  letters  and  parts  of 
single  letters  are  often  overlaid  by  careful  pressmen.  When 
the  pressman  is  expert  at  making  ready,  it  is  not  necessary 
that  he  should,  take  a  new  impression  with  every  successive 
set  of  overlays.  Many  pressmen  take  a  dozen  proofs  of  a  form 
on  different  styles  of  paper,  and  proceed  to  cut  out  and  over- 
lay on  one  of  the  proofs,  and  finally  paste  this  proof  on  the 
tympan.  But  this  boldness  and  precision  can  be  acquired 
only  by  long  practice.  It  is  better  for  the  young  pressman  to 
feel  his  way  step  by  step. 

The  Impression, — A  diversity  of  opinion  exists  among  good 
printers  as  to  the  proper  force  of  the  impression :  by  some  a 
heavy  and  solid  indention  of  the  paper  is  considered  neces- 
sary; while  others  insist  that  an  impression  which  does  not 
indent  the  paper  is  preferable.  But  the  indention  of  the  paper 
is  no  test  of  the  force  of  the  impression.  A  light  impression 
against  a  woollen  blanket  will  show  more  forcibly  than  a 
strong  impression  against  a  paper  or  a  pasteboard  tympan. 

Type  is  worn  out  not  so  much  by  the  direct  impression  of 
the  platen  or  cylinder  on  the  flat  face  of  a  form,  as  by  a  grind- 
ing or  rounding  impression  on  the  edges  of  the  type,  caused 
by  the  forcing  of  the  tympan  between  the  lines  and  around 
the  corners  of  every  letter.  Every  fount  of  worn-out  type, 
whether  from  cylinder  or  platen  press,  has  suffered  less  from 
a  reduction  in  height  than  from  a  rounding  of  the  edges. 
When  the  type  is  new  and  the  tympan  hard  and  smooth,  the 
impression  can  be  made  so  flat  that  the  type  will  not  round  at 
the  edges,  and  the  impression  will  not  show  on  the  paj^er.  But 
this  cannot  be  done  with  old  type  or  with  a  soft  tympan :  the 
impression  must  be  regulated  to  suit  the  tympan.  On  fine 
work,  a  rounding  impression  should  be  avoided,  as  it  not  only 
destroys  type,  but  also  thickens  the  hair-line  and  wears  off 
the  ceriphs. 

It  is  not  sufficient  that  the  paper  should  barely  meet  the 
type :  there  must  be  sufficient  force  in  the  impression  to  trans- 
fer the  ink  from  type  to  paper.  If  there  is  not  sufficient  im- 
pression, it  will  be  necessary  to  carry  much  ink  on  the  rollers ; 
and  this  produces  two  evils :  the  type  is  clogged  with  ink,  and 
the  form  becomes  foul ;  too  much  ink  is  transferred  to  the 
paper,  which  smears  and  sets  off  for  want  of  force  sufficient  to 


FINE  HAND-PRESSWORK.  253 

impress  it  in  the  paper.  Distinction  must  be  made  between  a 
light  and  weak  impression  and  a  firm  and  even  imi)ression. 
The  latter  should  be  secured  even  if  the  paper  is  indented ; 
though  that  is  not  always  necessary.  But  a  form  of  old  type, 
a  poster,  or  other  solid  form,  must  have  a  heavy  impression,  or 
else  a  very  tedious  and  careful  making-ready. 

To  set  New  Tapes. — Pass  the  tape  around  and  close  to  the 
cylinder.  Lap  it  over  one  of  the  tape  pulleys,  and  then  pass 
it  around  the  small  guide  pulley  on  the  shaft  above.  To  in- 
crease its  tightness,  throw  up  the  guide  pulley  from  the  shaft, 
and  set  the  binding  screw  more  tightly.  All  these  pulleys  are 
movable  on  their  shafts,  and  distance  between  them  may  be 
altered  at  pleasure.  Let  the  tapes  rest  upon  the  outer  margin 
of  the  sheet,  and  see  that  the  overlays  on  the  tympan  over 
which  the  tapes  pass  are  of  equal  thickness ;  if  not  of  equal 
thickness,  the  sheet  will  wrinkle. 

To  set  the  Fly. — Run  through  a  sheet  of  the  paper  to  be 
printed,  and  let  it  run  down  the  fly  so  far  that  it  is  barely  held 
by  the  fl^^  pulleys.  Then  set  the  cam  which  works  the  fly,  so 
that  its  point  just  clears  the  small  friction  roller  on  the  shaft, 
and  it  will  throw  down  the  sheet  correctly.  Tighten  the  spring 
according  to  the  size  of  the  sheet,  and  set  the  spring  crank  so 
that  it  will  prevent  the  fly  from  striking  too  hard  on  the  table. 

It  will  be  seen  that  good  press  work  does  not  depend  entirely 
upon  the  press,  nor  yet  upon  the  workman  or  the  materials. 
Nor  will  a  superiority  in  any  one  point  compensate  for  a  de- 
ficiency in  another :  the  newest  type  will  sufler  from  a  poor 
roller,  and  the  most  careful  making-ready  will  be  of  no  avail 
if  poor  ink  is  used.  It  is  necessary  that  all  the  materials 
should  be  of  the  best  kind, — that  they  should  be  well  adapted 
to  each  other,  and  fitly  used.  Although  a  good  workman  can 
do  much  with  insufficient  materials,  there  are  cases  where  a 
neglect  to  comply  with  one  condition  is  equal  to  a  neglect 
of  all.* 

FINE  HAND'PRESSWORK. 

Fine  presswork  is  the  art  of  printing  perfect  impressions 
from  the  surface  of  type  or  engravings  in  relief:  that  is,  the 
subject  transferred  to  paper  should  be  an  impression  from  the 

*  R.  Hoe  &  Co.'s  Catalogue. 
22 


2  54  FINE  HA  ND~ PRESS  WORK, 

surface,  and  the  surface  only,  of  the  types  or  engraved  lines, 
of  such  a  tone  as  to  produce  all  the  effect  of  which  the  sub- 
ject is  capable,  without  either  superfluity  or  deficiency  of 
colour. 

The  press  ought  to  be  in  the  best  condition;  otherwise  it 
will  be  impossible  to  get  an  equal  impression  without  much 
trouble  and  loss  of  time.  The  joints  of  the  tympan  should 
not  have  any  play,  or  the  correctness  of  the  register  will  be 
affected,  and  slurs  and  doubles  be  caused. 

The  parchments  on  the  tympans  should  be  thin,  and  of  a 
uniform  thickness,  and  stretched  on  the  tympans  so  as  not  to 
be  flaccid.  On  account  of  its  thinness,  smoothness,  and  uni- 
formity, silk  is  probably  preferable. 

The  face  of  the  platen  ought  to  be  a  true  plane,  and  parallel 
to  the  press-stone,  or  table. 

The  advantage  of  having  a  good  press  is  unavailing  for  the 
production  of  fine  work  if  the  types  are  much  worn ;  for  it  is 
impossi  ble  to  produce  a  sharp,  clear  impression  when  the  type 
is  worn  and  the  fine  lines  are  rounded  by  much  use.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  roundness  of  the  letter,  it  is  necessary  to  use 
a  thick  blanket  in  the  tympan  to  bring  up  the  type;  thus 
producing  a  gross  and  irregular  impression  of  more  than  the 
surface. 

Ink  for  fine  work  should  be  characterized  by  the  following 
peculiarities : — 

Intenseness  of  colour. 

Impalpability. 

Covering  the  surface  perfectly  of  the  type  or  engraving. 

Quitting  the  surface  of  the  type  or  engraving  when  the 
paper  is  pressed  on  it,  and  adhering  to  the  paj)er. 

Not  smearing  after  it  is  printed. 

Complete  retention  of  colour. 

Ink  ought  to  be  reduced  to  an  impalpable  smoothness, 
either  in  a  mill  or  on  a  stone  with  a  muUer.  This  is  essential, 
as  the  process  gives  it  the  next  quality, — that  of  completely 
yet  very  thinly  covering  the  surface  of  the  type  or  the  lines  of 
the  engraving,  and  insuring  an  even  and  perfect  appearance 
to  the  impression  on  the  paper.  Another  important  requisite 
is,  that  the  ink  shall  not  only  cover  the  surface  of  the  lines  on 
the  paper  printed,  but  that  it  shall  also  quit  the  face  of  the 
type  or  engraving  and  leave  it  quite  clean  when  the  paper  is 
impressed  on  it,  and  attach  itself  to  the  paper,  so  as  to  give 


FINE  HAND-PRESSWORK,  255 

a  perfect  impression  of  the  subject  represented,  without  the 
colour  of  the  paper  appearing  through  the  ink ;  and  that  this 
peculiarity  of  quitting  the  type  or  engraving  and  becoming 
attached  to  the  paper  shall  continue  the  same  through  any 
number  of  impressions,  without  any  accumulation  of  ink  on 
the  surface  printed  from.  After  having  obtained  these  re- 
sults, and  when  the  printing  is  as  perfect  as  it  can  be  made 
by  workmanship,  something  more  is  requisite, — viz. :  that  the 
ink  shall  not  smear  on  being  slightly  rubbed,  and  that  it  shall 
retain  its  colour  and  appearance  without  spreading  at  the 
edges  or  tinging  the  paper. 

The  rollers  should  be  in  good  condition ;  otherwise  the  press- 
man may  exert  his  skill  in  vain,  with  a  great  loss  of  time  and 
waste  of  paper. 

The  quality  of  the  paper  is  of  great  consequence  in  fine 
printing;  but  it  is  frequently  overlooked  by  the  printer's 
employers,  who  are  apt  to  pay  more  attention  to  a  showy 
aiDpearance  and  a  low  price  than  to  quality. 

The  best  paper  for  printing  on  is  that  which  is  made  of  fine 
linen  rags  and  moderately  sized,  without  the  use  of  acids  in 
bleaching,  and  without  being  adulterated  with  cotton  rags: 
this  paper  takes  water  kindly,  is  easily  got  into  good  con- 
dition, receives  a  good  impression,  is  durable,  preserves  its 
colour,  and  does  not  act  upon  the  ink. 

The  use  of  cotton  rags,  the  introduction  of  gypsum  into 
the  manufacture  of  fine  and  other  papers,  the  application  of 
acids  and  bleaching  powders  to  improve  the  colour  and  pro- 
duce apparently  good  paper  from  an  inferior  staple, — these 
form  the  grand  hinderances  to  the  American  printer  in  his 
efforts  to  equal  or  excel  foreign  productions,  ilcnc-o  it  is  that 
works  printed  in  this  country  are  less  valued  than  those  from 
the  English  press,  which  are  printed  on  paper  of  a  fine  fabric, 
made  mostly  of  linen  rags,  and  sufficiently  strong  to  bear  a 
fine  ink. 

A  pressman  should,  as  a  matter  of  course,  be  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  entire  routine  of  presswork ;  in  addition  to 
which,  to  form  his  judgment,  he  should  examine  the  most 
splendid  productions  of  the  press,  and  study  them  as  patterns 
of  workmanship. 

In  making  ready,  it  must  be  evident  that,  when  a  clear, 
sharp  impression  is  wanted,  the  pressure  should  be  on  the 
surface  only.     Of  course  the  tympan  ought  not  to  be  very  soft, 


256  FINE  HAND-PRESSWORK, 

neither  should  a  woollen  blanket  be  used:  the  most  perfect 
impression  will  be  obtained  when  fine  thick  paper  alone  is 
placed  in  the  tympans ;  and  even  of  this  article  but  few  thick- 
nesses should  be  employed. 

After  an  impression  is  printed,  the  pressman  examines  if  it 
be  uniform  throughout;  if  it  be,— which  is  very  rarely  the 
case,— he  goes  on  with  the  work ;  if  not,  he  proceeds  to  over- 
lay, in  order  to  produce  regularity  of  pressure  and  of  colour 
over  the  whole  form.  Wherever  the  impression  is  weak  he 
pastes  a  bit  of  thin,  smooth  paper,  of  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
imperfect  part,  on  the  tympan-sheet;  he  then  pulls  another 
impression,  to  examine  the  effect  of  his  overlays,  and  con- 
tinues to  add  to  them  where  wanted,  till  the  pressure  of  the 
platen  is  the  same  in  every  part  and  the  impression  is  of  a 
uniform  shade  of  colour. 

If  the  impression  come  oflf  too  strong  in  parts,  or  at  the 
edges  or  corners  of  the  pages  or  on  the  head-lines,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  cut  away  the  tympan-sheet  in  those  parts,  and, 
if  that  does  not  ease  the  pressure  sufficiently,  to  cut  away  the 
same  parts  from  one  or  more  of  the  sheets  that  are  within  the 
tympans. 

It  is  generally  preferable  to  overlay  on  a  sheet  of  stout 
smooth  paper  inside  the  tympan,  particularly  where  the  same 
press  does  the  whole  or  great  part  of  a  work :  this  sheet  is  cut 
to  fit  the  interior  of  the  tympan,  so  as  not  to  slip  about,  and 
has  overlays  pasted  on  it  where  wanted,  to  bring  up  the  im- 
pression till  it  is  very  nearly  equal.  In  all  succeeding  sheets 
it  saves  the  pressman  a  great  deal  of  time,  as  he  will  be  certain 
that  when  he  pulls  a  sheet  of  another  form  of  the  same  work  it 
will  be  nearly  right,  and  he  will  only  have  to  place  thin  over- 
lays on  occasional  parts  to  make  the  impression  perfect. 

It  is  necessary,  where  short  pages  occur  in  a  form,  to  have 
bearers  to  protect  their  bottom  lines  and  the  edges  of  the  ad- 
joining pages.  These  may  be  of  double  pica  reglet  pasted  on 
the  frisket,  so  as  to  bear  on  some  part  of  the  furniture  or 
chase ;  but  bearers  made  to  the  height  of  the  types  are  better, 
when  they  can  be  used. 

It  happens  occasionally  that  the  tympan  causes  the  paper 
to  touch  the  form  partially  on  being  turned  down,  and  occa- 
sions slurs.  This  may  occur  from  the  parchment  being  slack 
or  the  paper  being  thin  and  soft.  To  prevent  this  incon- 
venience, it  is  customary  to  roll  up  a  piece  of  thick  paper  and 


FINE  HAND-PRESS  WORK,  257 

paste  it  on  the  frisket  adjoining  the  part.  Many  pressmen 
prefer  pieces  of  cork  cut  to  about  the  thickness  of  double  pica, 
and  pasted  on  the  frisket. 

In  working  the  white  paper,  instead  of  pins  stuck  into  the 
tympan,  to  prevent  the  paper  slipping,  a  duck's  bill  (a  tongue 
cut  in  a  piece  of  stout  paper)  is  frequently  used :  it  is  pasted  to 
the  tympan  at  the  bottom  of  the  tympan-sheet,  and  the  tongue 
projects  in  front  of  it;  indeed,  the  tympan-sheet  appears  to 
rest  in  it.  The  bottom  of  each  sheet  is  placed  behind  this 
tongue,  which  supports  it  while  the  tympan  is  turned  down. 

The  rollers  should  be  kept  clean,  but  should  not  be  too 
moist,  as  this  will  prevent  the  ink  from  distributing  equally 
over  them,  and  from  covering  evenly  the  surface  of  the  types 
or  engraving ;  nor  should  they  be  too  dry,  as  in  that  case  they 
will  not  dispose  of  the  ink  smoothly  enough  to  produce  a  fine 
Impression,  neither  will  they  retain  particles  of  dirt  on  their  sur- 
face, but  will  part  with  them  to  the  form,  thus  causing  picks. 

The  ink  ought  to  be  rubbed  out  thinly  and  equally  on  the 
ink-block,  so  that  when  it  is  taken  it  may  be  diffused  smoothly 
over  the  surface  of  the  rollers.  It  is  advisable  to  keep  rubbing 
the  ink  out  on  the  block  with  the  brayer,  and  to  distribute  the 
roller  almost  constantly;  the  continual  friction  produces  a 
small  degree  of  warmth,  which  is  of  advantage,  particularly 
in  cold  weather. 

As  uniformity  of  colour  is  requisite  for  beauty  in  printing, 
where  the  form  is  large  the  pressman  should  take  ink  for 
everj^  impression :  this  may  be  thought  troublesome,  but  it  is 
advantageous  in  producing  regularity  of  colour.  It  is  un- 
pleasant to  see  in  a  fine  book  two  pages  that  face  each  other 
differing  in  colour, — the  one  a  full  black,  surcharged  with  ink, 
the  other  deficient  in  quantity  and  of  a  gray  colour ;  yet  this 
must  happen  when,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  three  or  four 
sheets  are  printed  with  one  taking  of  ink. 

In  fine  books,  particularly  where  the  paper  is  large  and 
heavy  and  the  type  large,  set-off  sheets  are  used  to  interleave 
the  whole  impression  while  working :  these  remain  till  the 
printed  paper  is  taken  down  from  the  poles  by  the  warehouse- 
man. These  set-off  sheets  are  put  in  when  the  white  paper  is 
working,  and  moved  trom  one  heap  to  the  other  during  the 
working  of  the  reiteration.  They  prevent  the  ink  from  setting 
off  from  one  sheet  to  another  while  they  are  newly  printed, 
from  the  weight  of  the  paper. 


258  PRINTING  WOOD-CUTS. 

To  secure  uniformity  of  impression,  the  pull  should  be  so 
adjusted  in  the  first  instance  as  to  give  a  proper  degree  of 
pressure  on  the  form  when  the  bar  is  pulled  home;  then, 
checking  the  bar,  it  should  be  allowed  to  rest  in  that  position 
during  a  short  pause. 

It  will  be  perceived  that,  to  produce  press  work  of  a  highly 
superior  character,  great  expense  and  much  time  are  re- 
quired ;  and  that  it  is  requisite  to  have  a  good  press  in  good 
condition;  to  have  new  types,  or  types  whose  faces  are  not 
rounded  by  wear ;  to  have  good  rollers  in  good  condition ; 
that  the  ink  should  be  strong,  of  a  full  black  colour,  that  will 
not  fade  nor  stain  the  paper,  and  ground  so  fine  as  to  be  im- 
palpable; the  paper  should  be  of  the  best  quality,  made  of 
linen  rags,  and  not  bleached  by  means  of  acids  or  bleaching 
powders,  which  have  a  tendency  to  decompose  the  ink ;  the 
rolling  should  be  carefully  and  well  done  \  the  face  of  the  type 
should  be  completely  covered  with  ink,  without  any  super- 
fluity, so  as  to  produce  a  full  colour ;  and  the  pull  should  be  so 
regulated  as  to  have  a  slow  and  great  pressure,  and  to  pause 
at  its  maximum  in  order  to  fix  the  ink  firmly  upon  the  paper. 
These  particulars  observed,  with  nothing  but  paper  in  the 
tympans,  perfect  impressions  of  the  face  alone  of  the  type  will 
be  obtained,  and  a  splendid  book  will  be  produced  in  the  best 
style  of  printing.*- 

PRINTING  WOOD-CUTS. 

A  siNGiiE  block,  when  imposed  in  a  large  chase,  may  spring 
out  of  the  chase  while  being  inked,  from  the  quantity  of  furni- 
ture about  it.  A  good  plan  is  to  impose  it  in  a  job-chase,  and 
to  impose  this  chase  in  a  larger  one :  this  will  cause  it  to  lie 
flatter  on  the  press  and  firmer  in  the  rolling,  as  the  small 
chase  can  be  locked  up  tight  in  the  large  one,  without  having 
too  much  furniture,  and  the  large  one  can  be  secured  firmly 
on  the  press  by  quoins  and  the  corner  irons. 

Before  pulling  the  first  impression,  the  workman  should 
see  that  the  surface  of  the  cut  is  perfectly  clear  from  particles 
of  dirt,  and  that  no  pin  or  lump  of  paste  is  on  the  tympan. 
He  ought  then  to  pull  very  gently,  or  he  may  injure  some  of 
the  fine  lines  of  the  engraving. 

*  Adapted  from  Savage. 


PRINTING  WOOD-CUTS,  259 

Neither  the  pressure  nor  the  impression  of  an  engraving  on 
wood  should  be  uniformly  equal :  if  it  be,  the  effect  intended 
to  be  produced  by  the  artist  will  fail ;  and,  instead  of  light, 
middle  tint,  and  shade,  an  impression  will  be  produced  that 
possesses  none  of  them  in  perfection :  some  parts  will  be  too 
hard  and  black,  while  other  parts  will  have  neither  pressure 
nor  colour  enough,  nor  any  of  the  mildness  of  the  middle  tint, 
which  ought  to  pervade  a  large  portion  of  an  engraving,  and 
on  which  the  eye  reposes  after  viewing  the  strong  lights  and 
the  deep  shades. 

To  produce  the  desired  effect,  great  nicety  and  patience  are 
required  in  the  pressman:  a  single  thickness  of  thin  India 
paper  (the  best  for  overlaying),  with  the  edges  scraped  down, 
is  frequently  required  over  very  small  parts.  The  overlay 
should  never  be  cut  at  the  edges ;  but,  even  where  great  deli- 
cacy of  shape  is  not  required,  it  should  be  torn  into  the  form 
wanted :  this  reduces  the  thickness  of  the  edges,  and  causes 
the  additional  pressure  to  blend  with  the  surrounding  parts. 

As  j)articular  parts  of  the  impression  will  frequently  come 
up  too  strong,  and  other  parts  too  weak,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
take  out  from  between  the  tympans  a  thickness  of  paper  and 
add  an  additional  tympan-sheet,  cutting  away  the  parts  that 
come  off  too  hard,  and  scraping  down  the  edges.  Scraping 
away  half  the  thickness  of  a  tympan-sheet  in  small  parts  that 
require  to  be  a  little  lightened  will  improve  the  impression- 
The  light  parts  require  little  pressure ;  but  the  depths  should 
be  brought  up  so  as  to  produce  a  full  and  firm  impression. 

If  a  block  be  hollow  on  the  surface,  underlaying  the  hollow 
part  will  bring  up  the  impression  better  than  overlaying  it, — 
at  least  so  nearly  that  only  a  thickness  or  two  of  paper  will  be 
needed  as  overlays.  If  a  block  be  too  low,  it  is  better  to  raise 
it  to  the  proper  height  by  underlays  than  to  use  overlays ;  as 
the  latter  act  in  some  measure  as  blankets,  and  are  pressed 
into  the  interstices,  rendering  the  lines  thicker  than  in  the 
engraving. 

It  will  be  necessary  sometimes,  when  the  surface  of  the 
block  is  very  uneven,  to  tear  away  parts  of  the  paper  in  the 
tympan,  to  equalize  the  impression  where  it  is  too  hard. 

The  pressman  will  find  it  convenient  to  pull  a  few  im- 
pressions, while  he  is  making  ready,  on  soiled  or  damaged 
India  paper.  Out  of  these  he  can  cut  overlays  to  the  precise 
shape  and  size  wanted,  which  are  always  necessary  when 


260  PRINTING    WOOD-CUTS. 

great  accuracy  is  required  in  overlaying  particular  portions. 
He  should  be  provided  with  a  sharp  penknife  and  a  pair  of 
good  small  scissors.  A  fine  sharp  bodkin  and  a  needle  or 
two,  to  take  out  picks,  are  also  needful ;  but  he  should  be  par- 
ticularly careful  so  to  use  them  that  he  do  no  injury.  The 
best  way  is,  to  draw  the  bodkin  or  needle  point  cautiously  in 
the  direction  of  the  lines. 

Engravings  in  vignette  form  require  great  attention  to 
keep  the  edges  light  and  clear,  and  in  general  it  is  necessary 
to  scrape  away  one  or  two  thicknesses  of  paper  in  order  to 
lighten  the  impression  and  keep  it  clean:  the  edges  being 
irregular  and  straggling,  they  are  likely  to  come  off  too  hard. 
Bearers  type-high  placed  beside  the  block  will  be  found  ad- 
vantageous ;  if  they  cannot  be  used,  pieces  of  reglet,  pasted  on 
the  frisket  in  the  usual  way,  and  taking  a  bearing  on  the  fur- 
niture, must  be  substituted ;  but  the  high  bearer  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred where  it  can  be  adopted.  The  bearers  equalize  the 
pressure  on  the  surface  of  the  engraving,  and  protect  the  edges 
from  the  severity  of  the  pull,  which  is  always  injurious  to  the 
delicacy  of  the  external  lines.  They  also  render  the  subject 
more  manageable,  by  enabling  the  pressman  to  add  to  or 
diminish  the  pressure  on  particular  parts,  so  as  to  produce  the 
desired  effect. 

When  great  delicacy  of  impression  is  required  in  a  vignette, 
it  will  be  found  beneficial,  after  the  engraving  is  inked,  to  roll 
the  extremities  with  a  small  roller  without  ink :  this  will  not 
only  take  away  any  superfluity  of  ink,  but  will  prevent  picks, 
and  give  lightness  and  softness  to  the  edges,  particularly  where 
the  effect  of  distance  is  required. 

If  the  extremities  are  engraved  much  lighter  than  the  central 
parts,  underlays  should  be  pasted  on  the  middle  of  the  block, 
which  will  give  a  firmer  impression  to  the  central  parts  of  the 
subject.  It  would  save  trouble  and  aid  in  getting  a  good  im- 
pression if  the  block  were  engraved  a  little  rounded  on  the 
face. 

When  highly  finished  engravings  on  wood  are  worked 
separately,  woollen  cloth,  however  fine,  should  never  be  used 
for  blankets,  as  it  causes  too  much  impression ;  a  sheet  or 
two  of  hard  smooth  paper  between  the  tympans  is  better; 
sometimes  even  a  piece  of  glazed  pasteboard  is  used  inside  the 
outer  tympan.  The  parchments  ought  to  be  in  good  condition, 
stretched  tight,  of  a  smooth  surface,  thin,  and  of  regular  thick- 


FBINTINQ  WOOD-QUTS.  261 

ness,  so  as  to  enable  the  pressman  to  obtain  an  impression  as 
nearly  as  possible  from  the  surface  only  of  the  engraved  lines. 

The  rollers  must  be  kept  in  perfect  order;  and  the  press- 
man should  be  very  particular  in  taking  ink  and  inking  the 
block.    He  ought  to  use  the  best  ink  that  can  be  procured. 

When  a  wood-cut  left  on  the  press  all  night  has  become 
warped,  lay  it  on  its  face  upon  the  imposing-stone,  with  a  few 
thicknesses  of  damp  paper  underneath  it,  and  place  over  it 
the  flat  side  of  a  planer,  with  sufficient  weight  upon  it ;  in  the 
course  of  a  few  hours  the  block  will  be  restored  to  its  original 
flatness.  This  method  is  preferable  to  steeping  the  block  in 
water ;  as  the  steeping  swells  the  lines  of  the  engraving,  and, 
consequently,  affects  the  impression.  To  preserve  the  original 
eflect  of  the  cut  as  it  came  from  the  hands  of  the  artist,  the 
block  should  never  be  wet  with  water ;  and,  when  it  has  been 
worked  in  a  form  with  types,  it  should  be  taken  out  before 
the  form  is  washed. 

To  prevent  warj)ing  during  the  dinner-hour  or  the  night, 
turn  the  tympan  down  upon  the  form,  run  the  carriage  in, 
and,  pulling  the  bar-handle  home,  fasten  it  so  that  it  will  re- 
main in  this  position  during  the  interim. 

However  long  boxwood  may  be  kept  in  the  log,  it  will 
always  twist  and  warp  when  cut  into  slices  for  engraving,  on 
account  of  fresh  surfaces  being  exposed  to  the  air.  Large 
blocks  may  be  restored  to  their  flatness  in  the  course  of  a 
night  by  laying  them  on  a  plane  surface,  with  the  hollow  side 
downward,  without  any  weight  on  them. 

A  fine  engraving  on  wood  should  never  be  brushed  over 
with  ley :  the  best  method  is  to  wipe  the  ink  off  with  a  tine 
sponge  damped  with  spirits  of  turpentine,  and,  if  it  get  foul  in 
working,  clean  it  with  a  soft  brush  and  spirits  of  turpentine ; 
then  wipe  the  surface  dry  and  pull  two  or  three  impressions 
on  dry  waste  paper.  Spirits  of  turpentine  take  off  the  ink 
quicker,  and  affect  the  wood  less,  than  any  other  article.  The 
facility  with  which  the  block  is  again  brought  into  a  working 
state  more  than  compensates  for  the  trifling  additional  ex- 
pense incurred. 

When  a  few  proofs  only  are  wanted  from  a  small  engraving, 
good  impressions  may  be  obtained  with  little  trouble  on  dry 
India  paper,  with  about  six  thicknesses  of  the  same  sort  of 
paper  laid  over  it,  and  pulled  without  the  tympan ;  if  proofs 
are  wanted  from  large  ones,  it  will  be  found  advantageous  to 


262  GOLD  PRINTING, 

put  the  India  paper  for  a  few  minutes  into  a  heap  of  damp 
paper. 

To  do  full  justice  to  an  engraving,  the  pressman  should  get 
a  good  impression  from  the  engraver  and  place  it  before  him 
as  a  pattern,  and  then  arrange  the  overlays,  &c.  till  he  pro- 
duce a  facsimile  in  effect.  Better  still  is  it  for  an  unpractised 
hand  to  obtain  the  assistance  of  the  artist  at  the  press-side,  to 
direct  him  in  making  ready  the  cut.* 

CARD  PRINTING 

Has,  since  the  introduction  of  enamelled  or  polished  cards, 
made  rapid  strides  toward  perfection ;  the  fine  absorbing  qua- 
lity of  the  enamel,  under  proper  management,  producing  the 
most  beautiful  results, — in  many  cases  scarcely  discernible 
from  copper-plate.  A  card,  to  be  well  printed,  requires  the 
same  treatment  as  a  wood  engraving  (see  p.  258),  so  far  as 
making  ready  is  concerned,  and  in  working  without  blankets 
and  using  the  finest  ink.  Having  made  a  light  impression  on 
the  tympan-sheet,  place  the  pins  so  as  to  bring  the  impression 
as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  centre  of  the  card,  one  pin  at  the 
lower  side  and  two  at  the  off  side,  taking  care  that  the  head 
of  the  pin  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  types.  The  im- 
pression should  be  exceedingly  light  until  properly  regulated,— 
at  no  time  more  than  is  actually  necessary  to  bring  up  the /ace 
of  the  type.  Cards  are  now  mostly  printed  on  small  card- 
machines,  at  the  rate  of  one,  two,  and  even  ten  thousand  per 
hour.    All  cards  should  be  printed  dry. 

GOLD  PRINTING. 

The  types  being  made  ready  for  press  in  the  usual  manner, 
the  surface  is  covered  in  the  ordinary  way  with  gold  size  in- 
stead of  ink,  and  the  impression  taken  upon  the  paper.  For  a 
large  job,  remove  only  the  back  from  a  book  of  leaf-gold:  for 
a  small  one,  lay  a  straight-edge  across  the  book,  and  cut  it 
through,  of  the  size  required,  with  the  point  of  a  sharp  pen- 
knife. This  must  be  done  before  using  the  size.  Slightly  wet 
the  end  of  the  forefinger  of  the  right  hand,  and,  placing  the 
thumb  of  that  hand  on  the  pile  of  gold,  raise  the  edge  of  the 

*  Adapted  from  Savage. 


PRINTING  IN  COLOURS,  263 

paper  with  the  forefinger  sufficiently  to  dampen  it  with  the 
moisture  of  that  finger ;  then  press  the  moistened  edge  of  the 
paper  on  the  gold,  and  it  will  adhere  sufficiently  to  enable  the 
fingers  to  lift  gold  and  paper  together  and  place  it  on  the  im- 
pression. Proceed  thus  until  the  size  is  entirely  covered; 
gently  pat  the  gold  with  the  balls  of  the  fingers,  or  any  soft, 
pliable  substance,  until  it  is  set;  then,  with  a  very  soft  hat- 
brush,  remove  the  superfluous  gold,  when  a  clear  and  beau- 
tiful impression  will  appear.  Its  sharpness  will  depend  on 
the  judgment  of  the  printer  in  applying  the  size  to  the  type. 

BRONZE  PRINTING 

Is  used  more  extensively  than  gold  printing,  being  attended 
with  far  less  expense  in  the  cost  of  the  material.  The  method 
of  printing  is  the  same,  except  that,  instead  of  laying  on  the 
gold-leaf,  the  impression  is  rubbed  over  with  the  bronze,  b^^ 
dipping  a  small  block,  covered  with  a  short,  fine  fur,  into  the 
powder,  and  brushing  off  the  superfluous  bronze  with  a  soft 
brush,  as  in  gold  printing.  Bronze  can  be  procured  of  various 
colours,  and  when  laid  on  with  judgment  the  effect  is  beauti- 
ful.   The  palest  bronze  is  best. 

PRINTING  IN  COLOURS. 

When  red  and  black  are  to  be  printed  on  the  same  sheet, — 
the  same  process  being  applicable  to  all  other  colours, — the 
form  is  made  ready  in  the  usual  way,  and  a  chalk-line  is 
traced  around  the  outside  of  the  chase  on  the  press-bed,  to 
show  the  exact  situation  in  which  the  form  must  be  replaced 
after  having  been  lifted.  The  form  is  then  laid  with  its  face 
downward  on  a  letter-board  covered  with  the  press-blankets. 
The  words  marked  in  the  proof  to  be  printed  red  are  then 
forced  down,  and  Nonpareil  reglets  nicely  fitted  into  the 
vacancies,  which  raise  the  red  lines  and  words  an  equal  dis- 
tance from  the  other  matter.  A  sheet  of  paper  is  then  pasted 
on  the  form,  to  keep  the  Nonpareil  underlays  in  their  proper 
places.  The  form  is  again  laid  on  the  press,  observing  the 
utmost  care  in  placing  it  in  its  original  position  as  indicated 
by  the  marks  before  made  on  the  bed. 

It  must  then  be  made  perfectly  fast  to  the  corner  irons,  as 
it  is  highly  important  that  it  remain  firm  and  immovable 


264  PRINTING  IN  COLOURS, 

during  its  stay  on  the  press.  The  frisket  (which  is  covered 
with  strong  paper)  is  then  put  on,  the  form  rolled  over  with 
the  red  ink,  and  an  impression  made  on  it.  The  red  words 
are  then  cut  out  with  a  sharp-pointed  penknife,  with  so  much 
nicety  as  not  to  admit  the  smallest  soil  on  the  paper  from  the 
other  matter. 

The  red  being  finished  and  the  form  washed,  the  com- 
positor unlocks  it  (this  should  be  done  on  the  imposing-stone, 
as  the  pressman  can  easily  lay  it  agreeably  to  the  marks  made 
on  the  press),  and  draws  out  the  red  lines,  filling  up  the  space 
with  quadrates.  When  this  is  done,  the  pressman  cuts  out  the 
frisket  for  the  black.  An  extra  pair  of  points  are  used  to  pre- 
vent the  black  from  falling  on  the  red,  or,  as  it  is  technically 
termed,  riding.  Generally,  when  a  great  number  is  to  be 
printed,  as  many  forms  are  used  as  there  are  colours  to  be 
printed.  Another  method  of  placing  the  underlays  is  adopted 
for  broadsides,  &c.  with  large  letter  and  with  but  two  or  three 
lines  of  red.  The  red  lines  are  taken  out  on  the  press,  and 
underlays  are  put  in,  upon  which  the  lines  are  placed,  and  the 
frisket  is  cut  out  as  before  mentioned. 

The  custom  of  printing  broadsides,  &c.  with  several  colours 
is  so  common  that  ink-makers  generallj^  now  manufacture 
coloured  inks ;  consequently  the  printer  can  be  supplied  with- 
out the  delay  and  labour  of  making.  We  give  the  following 
particulars,  however,  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  wish  to  pre- 
pare their  own  colours. 

Varnish  is  the  common  menstruum  adopted  for  all  colours 
in  printing.  Red  is  the  colour  generally  used  with  black. 
Trieste  or  English  vermilion,  with  a  small  portion  of  lake, 
produces  a  beautiful  red,  w^hich  should  be  ground  with  a 
muller  on  a  marble  slab  till  it  be  perfectly  smooth.  If  it  be  in 
the  smallest  degree  gritty,  it  clogs  the  form,  and  consequently 
produces  a  thick  and  imperfect  impression ;  no  pains  should, 
therefore,  be  spared  to  render  it  perfectly  smooth  ;  it  may  then 
be  made  to  work  as  clear  and  free  from  picks  as  black.  A 
cheaper  red,  but  not  so  brilliant,  may  be  prepared  with  orange 
mineral,  rose  pink,  and  red  lead. 

Prussian  blue  makes  also  an  excellent  colour,  but  will 
require  a  good  deal  of  time  and  labour  to  make  it  perfectly 
smooth.  It  is  also  ground  with  the  best  varnish,  but  made 
considerably  thicker,  by  allowing  a  greater  portion  of  colour 
with  the  same  quantity  of  varnish,  than  the  red ;  it  will  then 


HOW  TO  USE  DRY  COLOUMS  265 

work  clear  and  free  from  picks.  As  this  colour  dries  rather 
rapidly,  the  rollers  should  be  frequently  washed. 

Other  colours  may  be  made, — viz.  lake  and  Indian  red, 
which  produce  a  deep  red ;  verditure  and  indigo,  for  blues ; 
orpiment,  pink,  yellow  ochre,  for  yellows ;  verdigris  and  green 
verditure,  for  green,  &c.  All  these  colours  should  be  ground 
with  soft  varnish,  being  in  themselves  dryers,  or  they  will 
choke  up  the  form.  The  consistency  of  the  ink  must  be 
governed  by  the  quality  of  the  work  to  be  executed.  For  a 
posting-bill  or  coarse  job,  the  ink  should  be  very  thin,  the 
proportion  of  varnish  being  much  greater  than  required  for 
fine  work.  Should  the  work  be  a  wood-cut,  or  small  type, 
the  pigment  should  be  made  as  thick  as  possible. 

The  best  colours  for  printing  are  those  of  the  lightest  body 
and  brightest  colour. 

HOW  TO  USE  DRY  COLOURS, 

To  produce  fine  qualities  of  coloured  printing  inks  by  mix- 
ing pure  dry  colours  with  varnish,  the  printer  will  do  well  to 
give  heed  to  the  following  particulars : — 

1.  No  more  should  be  mixed  at  a  time  than  will  be  required 
for  the  job  in  hand. 

2.  Coloured  inks  should  be  mixed  upon  a  slate  or  marble 
slab,  by  means  of  the  mViller,  and  never  upon  an  iron  or  other 
metallic  table.  The  table,  before  mixing,  should  be  thoroughly 
clean,  ,and  perfectly  free  from  the  slightest  soil  or  trace  of 
other  inks. 

3.  For  working  coloured  inks,  the  roller  should  not  be  too 
hard,  and  should  possess  a  biting,  elastic  face.  When  change 
of  colour  is  required,  it  should  be  cleaned  with  turpentine, 
and  a  moist  sponge  passed  over  the  face,  allowing  a  few 
minutes  for  the  roller  to  dry  before  resuming  its  use. 

For  bronze  printing,  the  roller  should  have  a  firm  face,  or 
the  tenacity  of  the  preparation  may  destroy  it ;  yet  it  must 
have  suflacient  elasticity  to  deposit  the  preparation  freely  and 
cleanly  on  the  type. 

4.  Various  shades  may  be  produced  by  observing  the  fol- 
lowing directions : — 

Bright  Pink  Ink. — Use  carmine  or  crimson  lake. 
Deep  Scarlet.— To  carmine  add  a  little  deep  vermilion. 
Bright  Red. — To  pale  vermilion  add  carmine. 
23 


266  CONTRAST  OF  COLOURS. 

Deep  Lilac. — To  cobalt  blue  add  a  little  carmine. 

Pale  Lilac. — To  carmine  add  a  little  cobalt  blue. 

Bright  Pale  Blue. — Cobalt. 

Deep  Bronze  Blue. — Chinese. 

Green. — To  pale  chrome  add  Chinese  blue ;  any  shade  can 
be  obtained  by  increasing  or  diminishing  either  colour. 

Emerald  Green. — Mix  pale  chrome  with  a  little  Chinese 
blue,  then  add  the  emerald  until  the  tint  is  satisfactory. 

Amber. — To  pale  chrome  add  a  little  carmine. 

Deep  Brown. — Burnt  umber,  with  a  little  scarlet  lake. 

Pale  Brown. — Burnt  sienna ;  a  rich  shade  is  made  by 
adding  a  little  lake  as  above. 

5.  Gold  Preparation.  Print  as  with  ordinary  ink,  then 
put  on  the  bronze  powder  with  a  broad  camel-hair  brush; 
allow  the  impressions  to  remain  a  short  time  for  the  prepara- 
tion to  set,  then  clean  off  the  superfluous  bronze:  the  im- 
pressions will  be  much  improved  if  passed  through  rollers. 


HOW  TO  MULTIPLY  COLOURS. 

A  PRINTER  who  has  on  hand  a  stock  of  yellow,  carmine, 
blue,  and  black  inks,  may  produce  other  colours  and  shades 
by  intermixing  as  follows  :— 

Yellow  and  carmine,  mixed,  will  give Vermilion. 

Carmine  and  blue Purple, 

Blue  and  black Deep  blue. 

Carmine,  yellow,  and  black Brown. 

Yellow  and  blue Green. 

Yellow  and  black Bronze  green. 

Yellow,  blue,  and  black Deep  green. 

Lighter  shades  may  be  obtained  by  adding  proper  propor- 
tions of  white  ink. 

CONTRAST  OF  COLOURS. 

It  is  wrongly  supposed  that  the  art  of  arranging  colours 
so  as  to  produce  the  best  effects  in  printing  is  entirely  de- 
pendent on  the  taste  of  the  operator ;  for  harmony  is  deter- 
mined by  fixed  natural  laws.  The  increasing  demand  for 
decorative  or  ornamental  work  renders  it  of  some  importance 
to  the  letter-press  printer  to  make  himself  acquainted  with 


CONTRAST  OF  COLOURS,  267 

these  laws ;  as,  without  some  attention  to  them,  the  most  ele- 
gant designs  of  the  type-founder,  and  the  finest  inks  that  can 
be  made,  may  yield  but  an  indifferent,  if  not  a  decidedly  un- 
pleasing,  result. 

The  following  remarks  will  be  of  use  to  persons  to  whom 
the  subject  is  new ;  but  for  a  thorough  explanation  of  it  they 
should  refer  to  Chevreul  on  Colours, — a  valuable  work  in  the 
French  language,  which  has  been  translated  into  English. 

I.  We  may,  in  the  first  place,  consider  white  light  as 
composed  of  three  primary  colours — blue,  red,  and  yellow — 
duly  blended ;  these  three,  in  an  infinite  variety  of  proportion, 
serving  to  produce  all  the  hues  in  creation.  If  we  take  any 
two  of  these  primaries  and  mix  them,  we  have  a  secondary 
colour.  Thus,  blue  and  red  form  violet,  blue  and  yellow  give 
green,  red  and  yellow  make  orange.  Each  of  these  secondary 
colours  harmonizes  perfectly  with  the  primary  which  does  not 
enter  into  its  composition.  Violet,  for  instance,— itself  a  mix- 
ture of  red  and  blue, — harmonizes  with  yellow ;  green,  having 
no  red  in  its  composition,  agrees  well  with  red  ;  orange,  in  the 
same  way,  forms  a  perfect  contrast  with  blue.  Either  of  these 
contrasts  has  the  effect  of  mutually  brightening  the  colours 
employed ;  a  red  and  a  green,  <fec.  being  more  beautiful  when 
placed  side  by  side  than  when  viewed  singly.  This  is  termed 
the  HAHMONY  OF  CONTRAST  OF  COLOURS ;  and  a  good  example 
of  it  is  seen  in  the  scarlet  geranium,  or  the  holly ;  the  one 
showing  a  light  green  leaf  opposed  to  a  bright  red  flower,  and 
the  other  a  deep  green  leaf  with  a  dark  red  berry. 

The  mixing  of  colours  is  a  very  different  thing  from  contrast- 
ing them ;  for,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  although  one  combina- 
tion of  the  primary  colours  gives  white,  yet  another  proportion 
will  produce  black.  While,  then,  red  and  green  look  beautiful 
side  by  side,  it  does  not  generally  answer  to  print  red  ink  on 
green  paper.  The  reason  is,  that  as  the  ink  is  slightly  trans- 
parent, some  of  the  green  shows  through  it,  and  appears  some- 
what black,  and  thus  lowers  the  brilliance  of  the  red  in  the 
same  degree  as  so  much  black  ink  would,  if  mixed  with  it. 
This  remark  will  apply  to  orange  or  yellow  on  a  blue  paper, 
&c.  The  darker  and  fuller  the  body  of  colour  used,  the  less  it 
is  affected  in  this  manner. 

The  most  perfect  contrasts  are  those  above  mentioned,  which 
are  formed  by  the  complementary  colours ;  yet  the  primaries 


268  CONTRAST  OF  COLOURS. 

blue,  red,  and  yellow  also  agree  well  together.  But  if  such 
colours  as  are  not  in  harmony  are  placed  near  each  other,  the 
effect  is  very  damaging  to  their  brightness.  While  red  is  made 
more  brilliant  by  the  proximity  of  green,  it  is  dimmed  and 
spoiled  by  placing  it  next  an  orange.  Neither  blue  nor  red 
contrasts  well  with  violet,  because  the  latter  contains  each  of 
these  colours  in  its  composition.  In  any  case  where  they  must 
come  into  juxtaposition,  the  unpleasant  effect  maybe  lessened 
by  adding  a  little  of  the  opposite  colour :  so,  if  a  violet  is  to 
contrast  with  red,  it  will  be  well  to  give  it  a  shade  of  blue, 
making  it  m.ovQ  puiyle;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  to  contrast 
with  blue  or  green,  it  should  be  made  redder, 

II.  Colours  w^ith  Black.  In  all  contrasts,  the  depth  of 
the  colour  is  an  important  element,  but  especially  so  in  such 
as  are  to  be  affected  by  the  presence  of  black.  In  but  few  in- 
stances will  the  latter  bear  the  neighbourhood  of  a  very  deep 
colour  to  advantage,  whilst  it  harmonizes  with  the  lighter  ones 
by  contrast  of  tone.  Yellow,  from  its  near  approach  to  white, 
should  always  be  worked  "full;"  orange  and  green  should 
also  be  full,  and  moderately  deep  in  tone,  to  contrast  with 
black.  If  a  blue  is  employed,  it  should  be  light,  or  it  will  im- 
poverish the  black  and  be  weakened  itself.  A  very  light  blue 
border,  with  a  broad  margin  of  white  between  it  and  the  body 
of  matter  enclosed,  will  give  a  clean,  bright  look  to  black  ink, 
and  whiteness  to  the  paper.  A  light  pink  (such  as  carmine 
reduced  with  flake  white  or  with  clear  varnish)  is  also  good ; 
yet  perhaps  the  preceding  is  preferable.  Dark  and  heavy  bor- 
ders are  frequently  a  positive  injury  to  printing,  where  the 
working  in  a  light  shade  would  have  secured  a  good  effect ;  for 
the  border  should  always  be  so  far  secondary  to  the  matter  en- 
closed as  not  to  draw  off  the  attention  too  much  to  itself. 

III.  Colours  on  Tinted  Papers  and  Tinted  Grounds. 
Besides  the  kind  of  harmony  already  mentioned,  there  is  an- 
other, which  is  produced  by  the  contrast  of  light  and  dark 
shades  of  the  same  colour.  This  might  be  employed  in  letter- 
press more  frequently  than  it  is  at  present,  with  some  advan- 
tage, as  the  effects  it  is  capable  of  yielding  are  very  chaste  and 
pleasing.  In  a  photograph  or  an  engraving,  all  the  effect  is 
dependent  on  difference  of  tones  of  one  colour ;  and  the  beauty 
of  a  wood  in  summer  consists  chiefly  in  the  contrast  displayed 


CONTRAST  OF  COLOURS,  269 

by  a  variety  of  shades  of  green  only.  A  deep  green  ink  on  a 
paper  of  a  light  tone  of  the  same  colour  is  especiallj^  good,  if  a 
heavy  letter  is  used ;  and  indeed  in  most  printing  in  colours, 
full,  solid-faced  letter  should  be  preferred  to  outlines  or  shaded 
ones,  which  are  difficult  to  work,  and  have  at  best  but  an  in- 
ferior appearance  unless  the  darkest  tones  are  employed.  A 
deep  blue  on  a  light  blue  ground,  or  against  a  light  blue  bor- 
der, is  also  good ;  and  without  the  latter  accompaniment  it  is 
not  unpleasant  on  a  blue  wove  writing-paper.  To  secure  the 
proper  effect,  however,  the  tints  should  be  of  the  same  hue; 
that  is,  if  the  graundwork  is  of  a  bluish  green,  the  colour  that 
is  to  be  worked  upon  it  should  also  be  a  green  inclining  to 
blue ;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  the  ground  is  of  a  yellower  green, 
the  body  of  ink  should  also  be  yellower ;  and  so  on.  This  may 
easily  be  managed  by  adding  a  small  portion  of  ink  of  the 
colour  required,  until  the  hue  is  matched. 

IV.  Neutral  Tints.  In  selecting  borders  for  the  more 
chaste  description  of  printing,  it  is  a  pretty  safe  rule  to  avoid 
such  as  cover  much  surface,  if  they  are  to  be  worked  in  any 
strong  colour  or  in  black.  When  lighter  tints  are  used,  they 
will  bear  extension  over  a  larger  surface ;  and  in  this  case  a 
pale  gray  or  neutral  border  will  have  a  beneficial  effect  on  any 
body  with  which  it  is  contrasted,  as  well  as  on  black  itself, 
which  is  purified  by  its  proximity.  If  the  central  printing  is 
in  black  only,  or  in  black  and  yellow,  a  lavender  gray  may 
be  substituted  for  the  border.  And  in  any  case  in  which  the 
central  matter  is  all  in  one  colour,  it  will  improve  it  to  have  a 
border  of  gray  which  is  slightly  tinged  with  the  complementary 
of  such  colour.  Thus,  if  the  body  be  red,  a  very  small  portion 
of  green  may  be  added  to  the  gray;  and  so  forth. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  in  ornamental  printing  abso- 
lute cleanliness  is  indispensable.  The  same  roller  should 
never  be  used  for  different  colours,  even  after  it  has  been 
washed.  Instead  of  hanging  exposed  to  dust  and  to  the  air, 
rollers  should  be  kept  in  a  tightly-closed  box;  and  in  this 
manner  they  will  remain  a  long  time  in  good  order.  The  tins 
of  ink  should  be  similarly  preserved,  and  the  lids  never  left 
off"  except  at  the  moment  of  using  from  them.  These  are  small 
matters ;  but  it  is  only  by  patient  attention  to  minute  details 
that  excellence  can  be  attained  in  printing. 

23* 


270  WOOD  TYPE, 


HOW  TO  TREAT  WOOD  TYPE, 

To  prevent  warping,  all  very  large  wood  type  should  be  set 
up  on  the  edge  when  put  away,  so  that  both  sides  may  be 
equally  exposed  to  the  air.  In  cleaning  it,  neither  ley  nor 
water  should  be  employed  under  any  circumstances.  Tur- 
pentine, camphene,  benzine,  or  kerosene  oil  may  be  used; 
but  turpentine  and  camphene  are  the  best.  Procure  a  small, 
shallow  pan ;  lay  the  form  flat  on  a  board ;  pour  about  six 
tablespoonfuls  of  turpentine  into  the  pan ;  touch  the  .face  of 
the  brush  to  the  turpentine,  and  pass  it  quickly  over  the  form 
before  it  evaporates.  Six  to  eight  spoonfuls  of  fluid  will  be 
found  sufiicient  to  clean  a  large  form,  if  thus  used. 


WAREHOUSE    DEPARTMENT. 


THE  WAREHOUSEMAN, 


THE  warehouseman  should  be  a 
man  sober  and  upright,  and  tho- 
roughly competent  to  the  business, 
on  whom  entire  reliance  may  be 
placed, — one  who  will  act  upon  the 
principle  of  making  his  employer's 
interest  the  end  of  all  his  action.  The 
employer  or  foreman  should  frequently  look  to  the  concerns 
of  the  warehouse,  and  see  that  all  the  work  is  forwarded  with 
despatch  and  accuracy. 

The  warehouseman  should  be  provided  with  a  book,  termed 
"The  Warehouse  Book,"  with  pages  annexed,  on  the  follow- 
ing plan,  and  about  the  size  of  a  foolscap  quarto. 


Bouvier's  Astronomy.    (No.  printed,  1000.) 


Date. 


1865. 
Nov.  3. 

Dec.  8. 

"  24. 
"  30. 
1866. 
May  4. 
"     5. 


Receipt  of  Paper, 
and  of  whom. 


90  reams  of  C.  Ma- 

garge  &  Co. 
40  ditto. 


with  waste. 


No.  of 
Copies  de- 
livered. 


100 
300 


400 
230 


1030 


To  whom  delivered, 
with  his  signature. 


John  Troxell. 

R.  Williams,  binder. 

Edward  Hughes. 
John  Warwick. 


For  whom. 


Sower,  Barnes 
&  Potts. 


271 


272  GIVING  OUT  PAPER  TO  WET 

When  the  paper  is  brought,  the  warehouseman  should  at  once 
compare  it  with  the  bill  of  delivery,  and,  if  right,  enter  the 
quantity  immediately  hUo  the  warehouse  book.  The  number 
of  printed  copies  delivered  to  the  binder  or  publisher  should 
also  be  entered,  and  his  signature  be  taken  at  the  time  of  de- 
livery. This  plan  will  prevent  disputes  with  the  bookseller  or 
author  relative  to  the  receipt  of  paper  or  the  delivery  of  sheets. 
Having  entered  the  receipt  of  the  paper,  the  warehouseman 
should  then  write  on  each  bundle,  with  red  chalk,  the  title  of 
the  book  it  is  to  be  used  for,  and  remove  it  into  a  convenient 
part  of  the  warehouse,  or  into  a  store-room  provided  for  that 
purpose. 

GIVING  OUT  PAPER  TO  WET 

A  BUNDLE  of  paper  consists  of  two  reams,  or  forty  quires, 
each  quire  containing  twenty-four  sheets.  Formerly,  the  two 
outside  quires  were  called  cassie  quires,  as  they  were  mostly 
made  up  of  torn,  stained,  wrinkled,  or  otherwise  imperfect 
sheets..  At  present,  all  the  quires  are  considered  good,  although 
some  outer  sheets  are  injured  by  the  twine  used  in  tying  up 
the  bundles. 

It  is  the  general  custom  to  print  of  every  work  w^hat  is 
termed  an  even  number, — either  250,  500,  750,  1000,  &c.  These 
quantities  are  given  out  for  the  wetter  in  tokens, — viz. :  for  250 
(sheets),  one  token,  containing  10  quires  18  sheets;  for  500,  two 
tokens,  one  11  quires,  and  the  other  10  quires  and  a  half;  for 
750,  three  tokens,  two  of  them  11  quires  each,  and  the  other  10 
quires  6  sheets;  and  for  1000,  four  tokens,  three  of  them  11 
quires  each,  and  the  other  10  quires.  If  a  work  is  printed  in 
half-sheets,  it,  of  course,  requires  only  half  the  above  quan- 
tities. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  form  any  positive  and  invariable 
rule  for  the  quantity  to  be  given  out  for  short  numbers,  as  it 
must  depend  in  some  degree  upon  the  quality  of  the  paper. 
The  more  expensive  papers,  on  which,  generally,  short  num- 
bers or  fine  copies  are  printed,  must  be  given  out  more 
sparingly  than  common  paper,  and  the  tympan  and  register 
sheets  be  supplied  by  a  more  common  sort,  cut  to  the  size  of 
the  finer.  For  numbers  up  to  150,  on  ordinary  paper,  six 
sheets  over  will,  generally  speaking,  be  sufficient. 

In  giving  out  paper  for  what  are  termed  jobs,  the  amount 


TAKING  DO  WN  SHEETiS  WHEN  DH  Y,         273 

necessary  can  easily  be  found  by  a  simple  calculation  in 
division. 

For  example,  a  job  (label  or  any  thing  else),  750  number, 
32)750(23    32  on  a  sheet,  will  require  24  sheets,  which  will  give 

64  an  overplus  of  18.    Where  a  sheet  has  to  be  cut  into 

rrr  many  parts,  allowance  must  be  made  for  accidents. 
Q/,         The  overplus  sheets  are  allowed  for  tympan-sheets, 

register-sheets,  and  other   incidents,  such  as  bad 

14  sheets,  faults  committed  in  rolling,  pulling,  bad 
register,  &c. ;  in  any  of  these  casualties,  the  pressman  doubles 
the  sheet  in  the  middle  and  lays  it  across  the  heap.  In  laying 
out  the  paper,  the  warehouseman  reverses  every  other  token, 
to  enable  the  wetter  to  distinguish  the  different  tokens.  When 
this  is  done,  he  labels  the  heap,  thus :  American  Printer^  May 
25,  1866, — that  the  pressman  may  know  how  long  it  has  been 
wet,  and  the  state  it  is  in  for  working. 

HANGING  UP  PAPER  TO  DRY, 

When  the  paper  is  worked  off  and  counted;  the  warehouse- 
man carries  the  heap  to  the  drying-room,  where  the  poles  are 
fixed  for  the  purpose  of  hanging  the  sheets  upon  to  dry,  and 
lays  it  down  on  a  table  of  convenient  height,  with  one  end  of 
the  heap  toward  him.  He  then  takes  the  handle  of  the  peel  in 
one  hand,  and  lays  the  top  part  down  upon  the  heap,  so  that 
the  upper  edge  may  reach  near  the  middle  of  the  sheet;  then, 
with  the  other  hand,  he  doubles  over  as  much  of  the  printed 
paper  as  he  thinks  sufficient  to  hang  up  at  one  lift,  which 
should  be  about  twelve  sheets,  according  to  the  pole-room  to 
hang  them. 

In  hanging  up  the  lifts,  he  places  them  so  that  each  lift  will 
lap  about  an  inch  over  the  preceding  one.  It  is  necessary, 
where  the  end  of  the  pole  is  exposed  to  a  strong  current  of  air 
from  a  window,  to  lock  the  last  lift.  This  is  done  by  folding  a 
lift  two  or  three  times,  so  as  to  concentrate  its  weight  in  a  small 
compass,  and  hanging  this  over  the  last  lift  near  the  window. 

TAKING  DOWN  SHEETS  WHEN  DRY, 

When  the  sheets  are  sufficiently  dry,  the  warehouseman 
takes  his  peel  and  begins  with  the  last  lift  hung  up,  on  ac- 
count of  the  wrapper  being  with  that  lift,  and  proceeds  in  the 


274        FILLING  IN  AND  PRESSING  SHEETS, 

reverse  order  of  hanging  them  up,  successively  taking  them 
down,  and  brushing  them,  if  dusty,  till  he  has  finished  the 
whole. 

Another  way  of  taking  the  sheets  down  from  the  poles  is, 
to  lay  the  flat  side  of  the  peel  against  the  edge  of  that  lift 
which  hangs  over  the  other  sheets,  and  push  the  peel  forward, 
forcing  them  to  slide,  one  lift  over  another.  But  by  this 
method  the  dust  which  settles  on  the  sheets  while  hanging  is 
rubbed  in. 


FILLING  IN  AND  PRESSING  SHEETS. 

When  the  sheets  are  taken  down,  the  warehouseman  re- 
moves them  to  the  warehouse,  where  they  are  filled  in  between 
smooth  pasteboards  made  for  the  purpose.  This  operation  is 
generally  performed  by  boys,  who,  after  a  little  practice,  be- 
come exceedingly  expert  at  it.  We  shall  endeavour  to  be 
,  somewhat  minute  in  our  description  of  this  operation.  We 
will  suppose  the  XDasteboards  to  have  sheets  between  them, 
which  will  be  the  case  after  they  have  been  once  used.  The 
warehouse  being  provided  with  long  tables  or  benches,  secured 
to  the  wall,  and  a  sufficient  number  of  movable  tables  about 
the  size  of  the  largest  paper,  the  warehouseman  places  one  of 
the  small  tables  endwise  against  the  long  one,  forming  a  right 
angle,  upon  which  to  lay  the  pressed  sheets  as  they  come  out 
of  the  boards ;  the  boy  then  takes  his  stand  at  the  right  side 
of  the  table,  with  the  dry  unpressed  sheets  at  his  right  hand 
and  the  pasteboards  at  his  left,  somewhat  elevated,  leaving 
sufficient  space  before  him  to  fill  in  the  sheets.  He  then  pro- 
ceeds as  follows.  He  first  moistens  the  thumb  of  his  right 
hand  and  reaches  across  to  the  pasteboards  at  his  left,  draw- 
ing one  off*  with  his  thumb  and  placing  it  before  him ;  he  then 
catches  a  sheet  of  the  dry  paper  also  with  his  right  hand  and 
places  it  as  near  the  centre  of  the  pasteboard  as  possible; 
then,  twisting  his  body  nimbly  round  to  the  left,  he  slides  the 
pressed  sheet  from  the  pile  of  pasteboards  to  the  table  at  his 
left  side,  and,  in  resuming  his  former  position,  again  draAvs 
off  a  pasteboard  with  his  thumb ;  and  so  on,  till  the  gross  or 
bundle  is  filled.  It  is  then  laid  aside,  and  another  bundle 
filled  and  laid  across  the  former,  taking  care  always  to  keep 
the  bundles  separated  until  they  are  put  in  press,  when  they 
are  separated  by  smooth  boards  made  of  cherry  or  other  hard 


SIZEiS  OF  PAPER.  275 

wood.  The  bundles  being  all  filled  in,  the  warehouseman 
proceeds  to  fill  up  the  standing-press,  putting  in  one  bundle 
at  a  time  and  placing  a  pressing-board  between  them ;  there 
should  also  be  a  stout  plank  introduced  between  the  top 
board  and  the  platen.  In  case  the  press  should  not  hold  quite 
as  much  as  desired,  more  may  be  got  in  by  unscrewing  the 
press  after  it  has  been  once  screwed  down.  The  press  is 
finally  screwed  down  as  tight  as  possible.  It  should  remain 
so  for  at  least  twelve  hours,  when  it  should  be  entirely  emptied 
before  the  sheets  are  taken  out  of  the  boards.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  keep  the  sides  of  the  piles  or  heaps  perfectly  even. 

COUNTING  OUT  AND  PUTTING  AWAY  SHEETS, 

When  the  sheets  are  taken  out,  the  warehouseman  knocks 
them  tip,  and,  after  counting  them  into  quires,  ties  them  up 
in  wrappers,  marking  the  name  of  the  work  and  signature  on 
each  bundle.  Two  or  three  sheets  of  each  signature  should  be 
laid  aside,  in  case  the  author,  bookseller,  or  employer  should 
want  a  copy  of  the  work  or  a  specimen  of  as  many  sheets  as 
are  finished. 

STANDARD  SIZES  OF  MACHINE-MADE  PAPER. 

{Furnished  by  Charles  Magarge  &  Cb.,  Philadelphia.) 
PRINTING  PAPER. 


Double  Imperial inches,  32  x  44 

Double  Super  Royal 27X42 

Double  Medium 24X38 

Royal  and  Half 25X30 

Imperial  and  Half 32x33 


Imperial inches,  22  X  32 

Super  Royal 21X27 

Royal 20X25 

Medium 19  X  24 


WRITING  PAPER. 


Folio inches,  17  X  22 

Demy 16  X  21 

Crown 15  X  19 

Flat  Cap 14  X  17 

Foolscap 13  X 16 


Packet  Post inches,  lliX  18i 

Commercial  Post 11  X17 

Letter 10  X 16 

Packet  Note 9  XHi 

Note 8  XIO 


A  TABLE 

For  ascertaining  the  Number  of  Forms  for  a  Book  of  any  Size, 
and  the  Quantity  of  Paper  necessary  to  print  a  thousand 
copies  m  any  form,  from  Octavo  to  36mo,  half-sheetwise. 


No.  of 
Forms. 


12mo. 


16mo. 


18mo. 


24mo. 


36fflo. 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 


i6 

24 

32 
40 

56 
64 
72 
80 
88 
96 
104 
112 
120 
128 
136 
144 
152 
160 
168 
176 
184 
192 
200 
208 
216 
224 
232 
240 
248 
256 
264 
272 
280 
288 
296 

304 
312 

320 


12 

24 

3^ 

48 

60 
72 
84 
96 
108 
120 
132 
144 
156 
168 
180 
192 
204 
216 
228 
240 
252 
264 
276 
288 
300 
312 
324 
336 
348 
360 

372 
384 

396 
408 
420 
432 
444 
456 
468 
480 


PAGES. 
16 

3J 
48 

64 

80 

96 

112 

128 
144 
160 
176 
192 
208 
224 
240 
256 
272 
288 

304 
320 

336 
352 
368 
384 
400 
416 
432 
448 
464 
480 
496 

528 

544 
560 

576 
592 
608 


18 
36 

54 
72 
90 
108 
126 
144 
162 
180 
198 
216 

234 
252 
270 
288 
306 
324 
342 
360 
378 
396 
414 

43^ 
450 
468 
486 

504 


PAGES. 

24 

48 

72 

96 

120 

144 

168 

192 

216 

240 

264 

288 

312 

336 
360 
384 
408 

432 
456 
480 
504 


32 
64 

9^ 
128 

160 

192 

224 

256 

288 

320 

352 

384 

416 

448 

480 

512 


36 

72 
108 
144 
180 
216 
252 
288 

324 
360 

396 

432 
468 

504 


Example. — How  many  reams  will  be  required  for,  a  12mo  hook  containing  1+08 
pages?     Find  the  number  of  pages  (408)  in  the  12nio  column:   in  the  outer 
column  on  the  left  of  the  table  the  number  of  forms  is  seen,  and  in  the  outer 
column  on  the  right  the  quantity  of  paper  required  is  given. 
276 


OETHOGRAPHICAL. 


A  THOROUGH  reformation  of  the  orthography  of  the  English 
language,  desirable  as  it  is, -can  scarcely  be  hoped  for  in  this 
century ;  though  doubtless  the  time  will  come  when  an  inter- 
national convention  will  settle  authoritatively  the  spelling  of 
every  word,  as  acceptably  as  has  been  done  by  the  Academies 
of  France  and  Spain  in  regard  to  the  orthography  of  the  lan- 
guages of  those  countries.  We  therefore  note  only  some  dis- 
crepancies in  English  spelling,  and  indicate  what  appears  to 
be  the  preferable  method. 

A  or  AN  before  a  Vowel  or  silent  h. 

In  regard  to  the  use  of  the  indefinite  article,  Walker's  Dic- 
tionary very  judiciously  says, — 

"This  indefinite,  and,  as  it  may  be  called,  the  euphonic 
article,  is  said  by  all  our  grammarians  to  be  used  before  a 
vowel  or  h  mute ;  but  no  notice  is  taken  of  using  a  instead  of 
it  before  what  is  called  a  vov^el,  as,  a  useful  hook^  a  useful  cere- 
mony, a  usurer,  &c. ;  nor  is  any  mention  made  of  its  constant 
usage  before  h  when  it  is  not  mute,  if  the  accent  of  the  word 
be  on  the  second  syllable,  as,  an  heroic  action,  an  historical 
account,  &c.  This  want  of  accuracy  arises  from  a  want  of 
analyzing  the  vowels,  and  not  attending  sufficiently  to  the 
influence  of  accent  on  pronunciation.  A  proper  investigation 
of  the  power  of  the  vowels  would  have  informed  our  gram- 
marians that  the  letter  w,  when  long,  is  not  so  properly  a 
vowel  as  a  semi-consonant,  and  perfectly  equivalent  to  com- 
mencing y,  and  that  a  feeling  of  this  has  insensibly  influenced 
the  best  speakers  to  prefix  a  to  it  in  their  conversation,  while 
a  confused  idea  of  the  general  rule,  arising  from  an  ignorance 

24  277 


278  ORTHOGRAPHICAL. 

of  the  nature  of  the  letters,  has  generally  induced  them  to 
prefix  an  to  it  in  writing.  The  same  observations  are  appli- 
cable to  the  h.  The  ear  alone  tells  us  that,  before  heroic^  his- 
torical, &c.,  the  an  ought  invariably  to  be  used ;  but,  by  not 
discovering  that  it  is  the  absence  of  accent  on  the  h  that  makes 
an  admissible  in  these  words,  we  are  apt  to  prefix  an  to  words 
where  the  h  is  sounded,  as,  an  horse,  an  house,  &c.,  and  thus 
set  our  spoken  and  written  language  at  variance.  The  article 
a  must  be  used  before  all  words  beginning  with  a  consonant, 
and  before  the  vowel  u  when  long ;  and  the  article  an  must  be 
used  before  all  words  beginning  with  a  vowel,  except  long  u; 
before  words  beginning  with  h  mute,  as,  an  hour,  an  heir,  &c. ; 
or  before  words  where  the  h  is  not  mute,  if  the  accent  be  on 
the  second  syllable,  as,  an  heroic  fiction,  an  historical  account, 
&c."  The  few  words  in  our  language  in  which  the  h  is  mute 
are  heir,  herb,  honest,  honour,  hospital,  hostler,  hour,  humble, 
humour,  and  their  derivatives. 

ABIiE  and  IBLE. 

All  English  words, 'without  regard  to  the  source  from  which 
they  have  been  derived,  and  those  which  come  from  Latin 
words  ending  in  abilis  or  French  ones  in  able,  take  the  termi- 
nation able  in  English,  as,  procurable,  amendable,  desirable, 
allowable,  voidable,  available,  fordable,  incontestable,  &c. ;  but 
in  words  from  Latin  and  French  words  terminating  in  ibilis 
or  ible,  then  the  ending  will  be  ible  in  English.  For  instance : 
accessible,  sensible,  defensible,  convertible,  &c. 

In  words  ending  in  ce  or  ge,  the  final  e  is  preserved  before 
the  termination  able,  for  the  purpose  of  indicating  the  soft 
sound  of  the  consonant,  as  in  marriageable,  chargeable,  trace- 
able, serviceable,  &c. ;  but  before  the  ending  ible  the  final  e  of 
the  primitive  disappears,  and  there  is  no  e  before  the  termina- 
tion.   Examples:  deducible,  reducible,  frangible,  Sea. 

The  following  list  of  words  in  ible  is  here  added ;  all  others 
end  in  able. 


accessible 

coercible 

conceptible 

couvincible 

admissible 

collectible 

conclusible 

corrigible 

adustible 

comminuible 

congestible 

corrosible 

appetible 

compatible 

contemptible 

corruptible 

apprehensible 

compatible 

contractible 

credible 

audible 

comprehensible 

controvertible 

deceptible 

cessible 

compressible 

convertible 

decerptible 

ORTHOGRAPHICAL, 


279 


decoctible 

eligible 

immiscible* 

referrible 

deducible 

eludible 

impassiblef 

reflexible 

defeasible 

enforcible 

intelligible 

refrangible 

defectible 

evincible 

irascible 

regible 

defensible 

expansible 

legible 

remissible 

depectible 

expressible 

miscible 

reprehensible 

deprehensiblc 

extendible 

partible 

resistible 

descendible 

extensible 

passiblej 

responsible 

destructible 

fallible 

perceptible 

reversible 

digestible 

feasible 

permiscible 

revertible 

discernible 

fencible 

permissible 

risible 

discerptible 

flexible 

persuasible 

seducible 

dispraisible 

forcible 

pervertible 

sensible 

dissolvible 

frangible 

plausible 

solvible 

distensible 

fusible 

possible 

tangible 

divisible 

horrible 

producible 

terrible 

docible 

ignoscible 

quadrible 

transmissible 

edible 

illegible 

reducible 

visible 

effectible 

immarcesslble 

IM  or  IN  and  em  or  en. 

The  prefix  in  is  from  the  Latin,  and  that  of  en  from  the 
French  and  Greek.  In  generally  signifies  situation^  and  en 
mostly  expresses  action.  Hence,  perhaps,  in  strictness,  inclose 
will  signify  "to  close  in,"  and  enclose^  "to  make  close."  So, 
to  inquire  will  be  "to  seek  m,  or  to  search  in,"  and  enquire^  to 
"  make  search."  Immigrate,  "  to  pass  into ;"  emigrate,  "  to  go 
out  of."  But  this  distinction  is  not  attended  to  by  writers,  and 
is,  indeed,  too  refined  for  general  practice. 

Before  the  letters  h  and  p,  en  becomes  em,  as  in  embattle, 
empower;  and  in  before  some  letters  becomes  ig,  il,  im,  or  ir, 
as  in  ignoble,  illegal,  improper,  irresolute. 

We  give  a  list  of  those  generally  spelt  with  im  or  in;  leaving 
it  to  be  inferred  that  the  rest  are  more  usual  with  em  or  en. 


imbarn 

imbue 

immigrate 

impale 

liipel 

imbibe 

imburse 

immingle 

imparadise 

impen 

imboil 

immanacle 

immit 

impassioned 

imperil 

imbound 

immense 

immix 

impawn 

impinge 

imbrue 

immerge 

immure 

impeach 

implant 

imbrute 

immerse 

impact 

impearl 

implead 

*  For  other  words  beginning  with  im,  in,  ir,  or  un  negative,  look  for  the  simple 
word, 
f  Incapable  of  suffering.  %  Capable  of  suffering. 


280 


OBTHOGBAPHICAL, 


import 

indict 

ingest 

insert 

intrench 

impose 

indite 

inhabit 

inset 

intrude 

impound 

indoctrinate 

inhale 

inshell 

intrust 

impregnate 

indrench 

inhere 

inship 

inumbrato 

impress 

induce 

inhold 

insinew 

inure 

imprint 

induct 

inhume 

insphere 

inurn 

imprison 

ineye 

initiate 

inspire 

invade 

inarch 

infer 

inject 

inspirit 

inveigh 

incase 

infest 

inlapidate 

install 

invert 

inclasp 

infix 

inlay- 

instate 

invest 

inclip 

inflame 

inlet 

insteep 

invigorate 

incloud 

inflate 

inoculate 

instil 

invite 

include 

inflect 

inosculate 

instop . 

invocate 

incrassate 

inflict 

inquire 

insure 

invoice 

increase 

infringe 

inrail 

inter 

invoke 

incur 

infuscate 

inscribe 

intertwine 

inwall 

indart 

infuse 

insculp 

intort 

inweave 

indent 

ingrain 

inseam 

IN  and  UN. 

intreasure 

In,  as  a  prefix,  also  marks  negation:  it  is  probable  that  it 
came  from  the  Romans.  Tln^  as  a  prefix,  is  synonymous  with 
in:  it  is  of  Saxon  origin,  and  generally  joined  to  words  from  a 
northern  source ;  while  in  is  oftener  applied  to  those  of  Latin 
derivation. 

ISE  and  IZE. 

The  variation  in  the  terminations  ise  and  ize  is  due  to  the 
different  derivations  of  words, — ize  characterizing  words  from 
the  Greek  and  Latin,  and  ise  from  the  French.  The  rule,  how- 
ever, is  not  inflexible.  The  following  words  are  commonly 
spelled  with  the  s. 


advertise 

comprise 

divertise 

merchandise 

advise 

compromise 

emprise 

misprise  (mistake) 

affranchise 

criticise 

enfranchise 

premise 

aggrandise 

demise 

enterprise 

recognise. 

amortise 

despise 

exercise 

reprise  (take  again) 

catechise 

devise 

exorcise 

supervise 

chastise 

disfranchise 

galliardise 

surmise 

circumcise 

disguise 

manumise 

surprise 

OR 

and 

OUR., 

The  ending  our  was  in  general  use  until  the  appearance  of 
Webster's  Dictionary,  in  which  the  u  was  dropped  in  words 


ORTHOGRAPHICAL. 


281 


terminating  with  our.  This  innovation  has  steadily  gained 
ground.  We  are  not  disposed  to  approve  of  partial  tinkerings 
with  English  orthography;  and,  until  a  general  convention 
of  British  and  American  scholars  settle  the  method  of  spell- 
ing English  words,  we  shall  adhere  to  the  established  usage. 
We  append  a  list  of  words  terminating  in  our. 


arbour 

colour 

fervour 

odour 

splendour 

ardour 

contour 

flavour 

parlour 

succour 

armour 

demeanour 

harbour 

rancour 

tambour 

behaviour 

dishonour 

honour 

rigour 

tumour 

candour 

dolour 

humour 

rumour 

valour 

clamour 

endeavour 

labour 

savour 

vapour 

clangour 

favour 

neighbour 

saviour 

vigour 

The  u  is  dropped  when  the  termination  ous  is  added  to  any 
of  these  words ;  as,  clamorous ^  dolorous ^  humor ov^,  IdborioiiSy 
odorous,  rancorous,  rigorous,  valorous,  vigorous.  And  also  in 
derivative  words ;  such  as  armory,  honorary,  &c. 

SIGN  and  TioN. 

Primitive  words  which  end  in  d,  de,  ge,  mit,  rt,  se,  or  ss,  take 
sion  in  their  derivatives ;  but  all  other  words  have  tion. 


sibBcindf  abscission 
condescenfZ,  condescension 
evade,  evasion 
intrude,  intrusion 
absterge,  abstersion 
emerge,  emersion 
admit,  admission 
remit,  remission 


revert,  reversion 
convert,  conversion 
confuse,  confusion 
revise,  revision 
impress,  impression 
confess,  confession 
admio;,  admixtion 
promote,  promotion 


IBEEOULARS. 


adhesion 

cohesion 

compulsion 

declension 

decursion 

depulsion 

dissension 


divulsiou 

evulsion 

exesion 

expulsion 

impulsion 

incursion 

propulsion 


recension 

recursion 

revulsion 

scansion 

tension 

transcursion 

version 


attention 

causation 

distention 

distortion 

coercion 

suspicion 

crucifixion 


24* 


282  ORTHOOUAPHICAL, 

FARTHER  and  FURTHER. 

Farther  is  nowadays  only  employed  when  speaking  of  dis- 
tance; in  all  other  acceptations  of  the  word,  further  is  gene- 
rally adopted. 

PEAS  and  PEASE. 

There  are  scarcely  any  words  in  which  a  mistake  is  more 
frequently  made  than  in  peas  and  pease.  Yet  the  distinction 
between  them  is  simple  and  well  defined.  Peas  is  the  plural 
of pea^  and,  consequently,  only  follows  numeral  adjectives; 
as,  "  ten  peas,"  "  a  hundred  peas,"  "  a  few  peas,"  "  many  peas ;" 
hut  pease  is  used  when  speaking  of  the  legumen  in  the  aggre- 
gate, or  generally.  Thus,  we  correctly  say,  ^^  Pease  are  dear 
this  year,"  "  Pease  were  plentifully  supplied  to  the  horses,"  &c. 

Pease  is  also  employed  adjectively;  as,  "j>ea5e-pudding," 
*'_pea5e-soup,"  or  "pea-soup,"  &c. 

The  Omission  of  s  in  the  Possessive  Case. 

It  is  not  uncommon  with  some  persons  to  omit  the  s  after 
the  apostrophe  in  the  possessive  case  of  nouns,  if  the  name 
itself  ends  in  s;  as,  ^^James^  hook,"  ^^  Barnes''  Notes."  But 
this  is  incorrect;  for  if  we  ask.  Whose  book?  we  should 
directly  answer,  James's.  The  only  case  when  the  s  can  be 
judiciously  omitted,  and  this  solely  to  avoid  the  too  hissing 
sound  of  so  many  s's  in  succession,  is  when  the  first  word 
ends  with  the  sound  of  s  in  its  last  two  syllables,  and  the  next 
word  begins  with  s;  as  in  Misses'  spectacles,  righteousness' 
sake,  conscience''  sake. 

Formation  of  the  Plurals  of  Words  compounded  of  a  Noun 
and  an  Adjective. 

Adjectives  have  no  plural  number.  Therefore,  in  a  word 
compounded  of  a  noun  and  an  adjective,  the  s  denoting  the 
plural  number  is  attached  to  the  end  of  the  noun,  as  follows  '.— 

Governor-general Governors-general. 

Attorney-general Attorneys-general. 

Court-martial Courts-martial. 

But  where  the  adjective  is  taken  substantively,  the  mark  of 
the  plural  will  properly  follow  it.  For  example  :  Brigadier- 
generals,  major-generals,  lieutenant-generals. 


ORTHOORAPHICAL.  283 

Words  compounded  of  a  noun  and  the  adjective  full  form 
their  plurals  thus;  spoonfuls^  cupfulSy  bucketfuls^  handfuls, 
mouithfuls. 

Pointing  of  Numbers,  Weights,  Measures,  &c. 

No  comma  should  be  placed  between  the  constituent  parts 
of  the  same  number,  however  long  it  may  be.  Thus,  we  say, 
**  One  million  one  hundred  thousand  five  hundred  and  twenty- 
one,"  without  any  interpunction.  The  reason  is,  that  there  is 
no  more  than  one  numerical  aggregate  intended,  or  but  one 
complex  notion ;  and,  consequently,  no  separation  of  parts  or 
members  can  take  place.  The  same  reasoning  holds  good  as 
respects  values,  weights,  &c.  For  instance,  when  we  say,  *'Six 
dollars  and  ten  cents,"  we  merely  mean  that  aggregate  amount, 
but  not  necessarily  any  one  of  the  coins  indicated.  If  we  did 
so  intend,  then  two  commas  should  be  introduced, — one  after 
"dollars,"  and  the  other  after  "cents."  In  like  manner  we 
should  act  with  such  sentences  as,  "  Five  tons  three  hundred- 
weight two  quarters  and  fifteen  pounds ;"  or,  "  Ten  acres  four 
roods  and  twenty-seven  perches;"  and  for  the  same  reason; 
no  division  of  parts  is  intended,  but  merely  one  aggregate 
amount. 

When  figures  are  used  to  express  amounts,  a  comma  should 
not  be  inserted  to  cut  off  the  tens  unless  the  sum  requires  five 
figures ;  e.  g,  ^10,600,  20,000  men,  (fee.  In  column  matter  this 
rule  will  not  apply. 

Derivation  of  English  Words, 

Of  course  the  Saxon  forms  the  basis  of  our  language  in  its 
essential  parts,  and  is  the  source  whence  we  derive  the  greater 
part  of  our  ordinary  and  most  emphatic  words.  Nevertheless, 
various  other  languages  have  been  put  under  contribution, 
especially  the  French,  Latin,  and  Greek.  This  will  be  evident 
from  the  following  statement  of  derivations,  which  will  show 
the  unlearned  reader  how  important  it  is  to  him  that  he  should 
acquire  some  knowledge  of  those  languages,  if  he  desires  to 
attain  to  a  thorough  proficiency  in  his  business  as  an  educated 
printer. 

I.  From  the  Greek  are  derived — 

1.  Words  ending  in  gram,  graph,  and  graphy ;  as,  telegram. 


284  OBTHOQBAPHIGAL. 

telegraph,  geography,  <fec. ;    from  the  word   ypa<pG)  {grapho)^ 
I  write,  and  some  other  Greek  word. 

2.  Those  in gon;  from  ycjvia  [gonia),  an  angle;  as,  octagon, 

3.  All  words  in  logue  or  logy;  as,  epilogue,  astrology ;  from 
T^dyog  (logos),  a  discourse. 

4.  Ic,  ick,  ics  are  also  Greek  terminations,  generally  of  ad- 
jectives. 

5.  Words  in  meter  are  all  of  Greek  origin,  coming  from  the 
verb  fzerpG)  (metro),  I  measure,  in  combination  with  some  other 
word. 

6.  Most  words  into  which  the  terminations  agogue,  asis, 
esis,  or  ysis  enter  are  also  of  Greek  origin ;  such  as  demagogue, 
emphasis,  parenthesis,  analysis,  &c. 

II.  But  the  main  source  whence  we  have  derived  words, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Saxon,  is  the  Latin,  as  will  appear 
from  an  inspection  of  the  following  list : — 

1.  Words  ending  in  ance,  ancy,  or  ant,  and  ence,  ency,  or  ent, 
come  from  Latin  words  ending  respectively  in  ans,  antia,  or 
ens,  entia;  as,  abundance,  from  abundantia;  infancy,  from  in- 
f antia;  abundant,  from  abundans;  absence,  from  absentia; 
excellency,  from  excellentia;  and  excellent,  from  excellens, 

2.  Words  in  al  have  their  Latin  representatives  in  alis;  as, 
corporal,  from  corporalis. 

3.  Verbs  in  ate  mostly  come  from  Latin  verbs  of  the  first 
conjugation ;  as,  moderate,  from  modero, 

4.  Words  in  ator  are  generally  the  same  in  both  languages ; 
as,  orator,  senator,  moderator, 

5.  The  termination  id  comes  mostly  from  Latin  words  end- 
ing in  idus;  as,  add,  from  acidus;  but  sometimes  words  of  this 
ending  are  of  Greek  origin ;  as,  oxide  (more  correctly,  oxyd), 
from  b^vg  (oxys) ;  and,  indeed,  most  scientific  words  of  this 
ending ;  as,  carotid,  from  KapuTLdeg,  &c. ;  rhomboid,  from  po/i- 
^OEidrjg, 

6.  II  or  He  is  likewise  from  the  Latin  termination  of  adjec- 
tives in  His;  as,  docile,  from  docilis;  civil,  from  civilis, 

7.  The  Latin  termination  osus  has  its  English  representa- 
tive in  ious  or  ous;  as,  copious,  from  copiosus;  numerous, 
from  numerosus.  But  sometimes  the  English  ending  ous 
comes  from  a  Latin  word  in  ax;  as,  capacious,  from  capax, 

8.  The  Latin  ending  io  has  its  English  corresponding  word 
in  ion;  as,  nation,  from  natio  ;  oration,  from  or  alio. 


ORTHOGRAPHICAL,  285 

9.  The  endings  we,  re,  and  te  after  a  vowel  are  also  for  the 
greater  part  of  Latin  origin;  as,  fortune,  from  fortuna;  aqui- 
line, from  aquilinus;  culture,  from  cultura;  pure,  from  purus, 
complete,  from  completus,  &c. 

10.  Words  in  ty  come  from  Latin  words  in  tas ;  as,  equality, 
from  cequalitas;  bounty,  from  bonitas;  rarity,  from  raritas,  &c. 

11.  The  termination  -wde  is  also  of  Latin  origin,  coming 
from  words  in  udo ;  as,  fortitude,  from  fortitudo ;  elude,  from 
eiifcdo. 

12.  So  also  is  uou8,  by  inserting  the  letter  o  ;  as,  ambiguous 
from  ambiguus;  continuous,  from  continuus,  &q, 

III.  From  the  French  have  come — 

1.  Most  of  our  words  in  age ;  as,  page,  rage,  usage. 

2.  All  those  in  eau;  as,  beau,  flambeau,  (fee. 

3.  The  French  esse  is  represented  by  the  English  ess;  as, 
princess,  from  princesse. 

4.  Words  in  gi^e  mostly  come  to  us  from  the  French  directly ; 
some  from  the  Latin  directly  or  indirectly ;  as,  antique  (L.  anti- 
quus,  F.  antique),  oblique,  opaque. 

5.  Words  ending  in  ment  are  nearly  the  same  in  both  lan- 
guages ;  as,  commencement,  advancement  (F.  avancement),  &c. 


We  subjoin  some  rules  for  spelling,  adapted  from  Laid- 
law's  American  Pronouncing  Dictionary.'^ 

RULE  I. 

Words  ending  in  silent  e  after  it  or  a  consonant  generally 
drop  the  e  on  taking  an  additional  termination  beginning  with 
a  vowel;  as,  sale,  sa^a6^e;  plague,  p^a^wy;  sue,  suing;  eye, 
eying. 

Exception  I. — Words  ending  in  ce  and  ge  retain  e  before  able  and  cms;  as,  ser- 
vice, serviceable;  trace,  traceable;  courage,  courageous ;  advantage,  advantageous. 

Exception  II. — Compounds  and  prefixes  retain  e;  qb,  firearms,  foreordain^  pole- 
axe,  vice-admiral,  fire-engine. 

*  Published  by  E.  C.  Markley  &  Son,  Philadelphia.    An  excellent  book. 


286  ORTHOOBAPSICAL, 

JRemark. — From  singe,  springe,  swinge,  tinge,  we  write  singeing,  springeing, 
swingeing,  tingeing,  to  distinguish  from  singing,  springing,  swinging,  and  tinging. 
Dyeing,  from  dye.  retains  e,  to  distinguish  it  from  dying,  the  present  participle 
of  die.  Mile  retains  e  in  mileage.  Derivatives  from  proper  names  of  persons 
retain  e;  as,  daguerreotype,  rfwrseograph. 

RULE  II. 

Words  ending  in  silent  e  generally  retain  the  e  on  taking 
an  additional  termination  beginning  with  a  consonant;  as, 
bereave,  bereavement ;  issue,  issueless. 

Remark. — Awful,  awfully,  aw  fulness,  argument,  argumentation,  argumentative,^ 
woful,  wofully,  wofulness,  duly,  truly,  and  wholly,  are  undisputed  exceptions; 
and  abridgment,  acknowledgment,  judgment,  misjudgment,  prejudgment,  lodgment, 
wobegone,  and  rhymster,  are  disputed  exceptions.  Some  write  abridgement,  ac- 
knowledgemtnt,  judgement,  misjudgement,  prejudgement,  lodgement,  woebegone,  and 
rhymester. 

RULE  III. 

Words  ending  in  ie  change  them  into  y  before  ing;  as,  lie, 
lying.    The  following  words  conform  to  this  rule : — 
lie  lie  die  untie 

belie  overlie  hie  vie 

outlie  underlie  tie  outvie 

RULE  IV. 

Words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  generally 
change  y  into  i  on  taking  an  additional  syllable ;  as,  mercy, 
merciful,  merciless;  defy,  defied,  defies,  defieth,  defiant;  busy, 
busier,  busiest,  business;  -ply,  pliers;  porphyry,  porphyritic. 

Exception  I. — T  after  a  consonant  is  not  changed  into  i  before  ing  or  ish;  as, 
dry,  drying,  dryish. 

Exception  II. — Compounds  usually  retain  y;  as,  mercy-seat,  county-town,  dairy- 
maid, skylight. 

Remark. — Dryer,  dryest,  dryly,  dryness,  shyer,  shyest,  shyly,  shyness,  are  undis- 
puted exceptions  to  the  rule;  and  slyer,  slyest,  slyly,  slyness ,  are  disputed 
exceptions. 

RULE  V. 

Words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel  retain  the  y;  as, 
gay,  gayly,  gayness,  gayety ;  pray,  prayer,  praying,  prayed, 
•prays. 

Remark. — From  day,  lay,  pay,  say,  stay,  are  formed  daily,  laid,  paid,  said,  saith, 
staid.  The  regular  words  dayly,  layed,  payed,  sayeth,  and  stayed,  are  sometimes 
used. 


ORTBOORAPHICAL.  287 

"^ 

BULB  VI. 

Monosyllables  and  words  having  the  primary  accent  on  the 
last  syllable,  when  they  end  with  a  single  consonant  preceded 
by  a  single  vowel,  double  their  final  consonant  before  an  ad- 
ditional syllable  that  begins  with  a  vowel ;  as,  wet,  wetter, 
wettest,  wetting,  wetted;  drum,  drumming,  drummed;  dispel, 
dispelling,  dispelled. 

Exception. — A  final  x,  or  the  s  in  gas,  should  not  be  doubled ;  as,  fix,  fixesy 
fixed,  fixing;  annex,  annexing;  gases,  gasefy. 

Remark  /.—  ?7 after  q  is  never  reckoned  a  part  of  a  diphthong  or  triphthong; 
so  that  from  quit  are  formed  quitting,  quitted;  and  from  quag,  quaggy. 

Remark  II. — This  rule  applies  only  to  derivatives  which  retain  the  accent  of 
their  primitives,  and  not  to  such  a'S  in'ferdble,  in'ference,  preferabU,  preference, 
referable,  and  reference,  from  infer,  prefer,  and  refer.  To  the  forms  infer'rible, 
refer'rible,  which  are  sometimes  met  with,  the  general  rule  applies.  Transfer'- 
able,  from  transfer,  is  an  exception  to  the  general  rule ;  the  regular  form  transfer'- 
rible  is  not  often  used.  Although  parallel' ogr am,  from  par'allel,  and  modal'ity, 
from  mo'dal,  remove  the  primary  accent  to  the  point  of  duplication,  they  do  not 
double  the  final  I,    See  Remark  II.  under  Rule  VII. 

RITLE  VII. 

A  final  consonant  is  not  doubled  when  it  is  preceded  by  a 
diphthong,  when  the  primary  accent  is  either  not  on,  or  not 
retained  upon,  the  last  syllable,  or  when  the  additional  syl- 
lable begins  with  a  consonant;  as,  beat,  heating,  beaten;  differ, 
differing,  differed,  difference,  different;  prefer',  preference; 
refer',  reference;  fit,  fitful,  fitly,  fitness;  hen'efit,  heWefited, 
ben^efiting. 

Exception  I. — Compounds  that  remove  the  primary  accent  from  the  point  of 
duplication  retain  thedouble  letter;  as,  broad'-brimmed,  heel' tapping. 

Remark  I. — ^When  ly  is  affixed  to  words  ending  in  I,  the  1  is  not  considered 
doubled ;  as  in  cool-ly,  realAy,  gravel-ly,  royaVly. 

Remark  II. — Nutmegged,  kidnapping,  kidnapped,  kidnapper,  zigzagging,  zig- 
zagged,  excellence,  and  some  others,  are  undisputed  exceptions  to  the  rule.  There 
are  nearly  one  hundred  words,  from  which  more  than  four  hundred  derivatives 
are  formed,  that  are  usually  made  exceptions  to  this  rule.  Webster  is  distin- 
guished for  making  nearly  all  the  derivatives  conform  to  the  rule.  Webster  and 
Smart  accent  the  verb  curv'et  on  the  first  syllable,  with  which  accentuation 
curveting  and  curveted  are  correct  spellings ;  other  orthoepists  accent  it  upon  th» 
last  syllable,  then  curvet'ting  and  curvet'ted  are  correct. 


288 


ORTHOGRAPHICAL. 


RULE  VIII. 


Words  ending  in  c  accept  of  k  before  a  termination  begin- 
ning with  e,  i,  or  y;  as,  frolic,  frolicked,  frolicking;  colic, 
Qolicky, 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

colic 

mimic 

rollic 

talc 

colicky 

mimicking 

rollicking 

talcky 

mimicked 

rollicked 

frolic 

mimicker 

zinc 

frolicking 

traffic 

zinckiferous 

frolicked 

physic 

trafficking 

(zinciferous) 

physicking 

trafficked 

zincky 

havoc 

physicked 

trafficker 

havocking 

havocked 

RULE 

IX. 

Words  ending  in  a  double  letter  preserve  it  double  after 
a  prefix  or  before  a  termination  beginning  with  a  different 
letter ;  as,  op-press,  miS'Spell,  in-thrall,  oversee;  see-ing,  oppress- 
ivCj  stiff-ness,  woo-ed,  still-ness,  assess-ment. 

Remark  L — Annul,  until,  twibil,  and  the  conservative /m?^Z,  or  the  Websterian 
fulfill,  are  the  only  exceptions  to  the  first  part  of  this  rule  extensively  recog- 
nised by  present  usage.  The  conservative  distil  and  instil  are  at  variance ;  but 
the  Websterian  distill  and  instill,  and  also  twihill,  as  written  by  Reid,  are  in  har- 
mony with  the  rule. 

Remark  IL — Pontific,  and  all  other  derivatives  of  pontiff,  are  exceptions  to  the 
latter  part  of  this  rule,  unless  an /is  discarded  in  the  primitive  word,  as  Webster 
suggests  and  the  derivation  warrants.  The  derivatives  of  dull,  full,  skill,  and 
will,  are  disputed  exceptions :  if  spelled  as  Webster  writes  them,  dullness,  fullness, 
skillful,  willful,  they  conform  to  the  rule. 


RULE  X. 

The  plural  is  usually  formed  from  the  singular  by  adding  5; 
as,  brave,  braves;  night,  nights;  hymn,  hymns. 


Nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  vowel  accept  of  s  in  the 
plural;  as,  cameo,  cameos;  studio,  studios. 


ORTHOGRAPHICAL, 


289 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


agios 

curculios 

koodoos 

punctilios 

bagnios 

embryos 

nuncios 

ratios 

bamboos 

folios 

olios 

seraglios 

braggadocios 

imbroglios 

oratorios 

solfeggios 

cameos 

intaglios 

pistachios 

studios 

cuckoos 

internuncios 

port-folios 

trios 

RUIiE 

XII. 

Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel  accept  of  s  in  the 
plural;  as,  money,  moneys;  attorney,  attorneys. 


RULE  XIII. 


Nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant  usually  accept 
of  es  in  the  plural;  as,  echo,  echoes;  embargo,  embargoes. 

Remark. — There  are  more  than  fifty  words  that  conform  to  this  rule,  and  about 
thirty  that  accept  of  s  only. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

archipelagoes 

frescoes 

negroes 

rotundoes 

armadilloes 

grottoes 

palmettoes 

stilettoes 

bilboes 

gustoes 

passadoes 

supercargoes 

bravadoes 

heroes 

peccadilloes 

testudoes 

bravoes 

innuendoes 

potatoes 

tomatoes 

buffaloes 

juntoes 

prunelloes 

tornadoes 

bufifoes 

lazarettoes 

punchinelloes 

torpedoes 

calicoes 

lingoes 

punctoes 

umboes 

cargoes 

lumbagoes 

ranchoes 

vetoes 

desperadoes 

mangoes 

recitativoes 

violoncelloes 

echoes 

manifestoes 

relievoes 

viragoes 

embargoes 

mottoes 

renegadoes 

volcanoes 

farragoes 

mulattoes 

ritornelloes 

zeroes 

EXCEPTIONS. 

albinos 

inamoratos 

octavos 

rondos 

cantos 

lassos 

pianos 

salvos 

centos 

limbos 

porticos 

set-tos 

dominos 

major-domos 

provisos 

siroccos 

duodecimos 

mementos 

quartos 

solos 

halos 

merinos 

rancheros 

torsos 

hidalgos 

mosquitos 

ridottos 

tyros 

It  would  be  well  if  all  words  ending  in  o  were  made  to  conform  to  Rules  XL 
and  XIII. 

25 


290 


ORTHOGRAPHICAL. 


RUIiE  XIV. 

Nouns  ending  in  5S,  0,  ic,  ch  soft,  and  sh^  accept  of  es  in  the 
plural;  as,  dress,  dresses;  buzz,  buzzes;  box,  boxes;  peach, 
peaches;  dish,  dishes. 

RULE  XV. 

Nouns  ending  in  y  after  a  consonant  change  y  into  tes  in  the 
pmral;  as,  city,  cities;  daisy,  daisies. 


RULE  XVI. 

Compound  nouns  whose  parts  are  connected  by  a  hyphen 
accept  of  the  sign  of  the  plural  after  that  part  which  essen- 
tially constitutes  the  noun;  as,  knight-errant,  knights-errant; 
son-in-law,  sons-in-law;  man-of-war,  men-of-war;  step- 
child, step -children;  ember -day,  ember -days;  man -singer, 
men-singers. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


aides-de-camp 

beans-ideal  or 

beaux-ideal 

cartes-blanche 

charges-d'affaires 

chevaux-de-frise 

coups-de-niain 


courts-martial 
cousins-german 
daughters-in-law 
fathers-in-law 
gendarmes  or 
gens  d'armes 
jets  d'eau 


knights-errant 

mesdames 

men-of-war 

messieurs 

mothers-in-law 

poets-laureate 

porte-monnaies 


prices-current 

sergeants-at-arms 

sisters-in-law 

sons-in-law 

step-children 

step-fathers 

valets-de-chambre 


Remark  I. — If  no  hyphen  is  used,  the  sign  of  the  plural  is  always  placed  at  the 
end ;  as,  spoonful,  spoonfuls. 

Remark  II. — The  sign  of  the  possessive  case  is  always  placed  at  the  end  of  com- 
pound nouns ;  as,  son-in-law'' s  house. 


RULE  XVII. 

The  compounds  of  man  form  their  plural  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  simple  word ;  as,  fisherman,  fishermen ;  man-of- 
war,  7nen-of-war. 

Exceptions. — The  only  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  dragoman,  Mussulman,  Otto- 
man, talisman,  Turcoman,  German,  Normans,  and  landamman,  which  accept  of  s. 


OMTHOQBAPHIQAL. 


291 


RULE  XVIII. 


Of  the  terminations  eive  and  ieve^  and  of  the  derivatives  of 
each,  the  former  are  found  after  c,  and  the  latter  after  othei 
letters;  as,  conceive,  conceit,  receive,  receipt:  relieve,  relief,  re- 
lieving, thieve,  thievish. 


ILUJSTRATIONS. 

achieve 

deceitful 

misbelief 

reprieve 

aggrieve 

deceive 

misconceive 

retrieve 

bas-relief 

disbelief 

perceive 

sieve 

belief 

disbelieve 

preconceive 

thiet 

believe 

grief 

receipt 

thieve 

conceit 

grieve 

receive 

unbelief 

conceivable 

inconceivable 

relief 

unbeliever 

conceive 

lief 

relieve 

undeceive 

deceit 

lieve 

relievo 

Plurals  of  Noun^  which  change  f  or 

FE  into  VES. 

beeves 

knives 

selves 

tipstaves 

calves 

leaves 

sheaves 

wharves 

elves 

lives 

shelves 

wives 

halves 

loaves 

thieves 

wolves 

All  other  nouns  ending  in  ff  conform  to  Rule  X.     Wharfs  prevails  in  Qreal 
Britain,  wharves  in  America. 


Plurals  of  Noun^  ending  in  f  or  fe  which  accept  of  s  only  in 
the  Plural. 


briefs 

caliphs                     surfs 

roofe 

chiefs 

caufs                        fifes 

proofs 

fiefs 

clefs                         strifes 

reproofs 

griefs 

coifs                         safes 

disproofs 

mischiefs 

delfs                         scarfs 

waterproofs 

kerchiefs 

dwarfs                      waifs 

beliefs 

neckerchiefs 

turfs                         woofs 

reliefs 

handkerchiefs 

kerfs                        hoofs 

gulfs 

Plurals 

of  Nouns  ending  in  eau,  ieu, 

and  ou. 

beaux 

flambeaux                portmanteaus 

bijoux 

bureaux 

plateaux                   purlieus 

morceaux 

chapeaux 

rondeaux                  adieux 

rouleaux 

chateaux 

jets  d'eau                  batteaux 

tableaux 

A  number  of  these  nouns  admits  of  two  forms  in  the  plural. 


THE   LAW   OF   COPYRIGHT. 


Subjects  of  Copyright.— The  intellectual  productions  to 
which  the  law  extends  protection  are  of  three  classes.  First, 
writings  or  drawings  capable  of  being  multiplied  by  the  arts 
of  printing  or  engraving.  ^Second,  designs  of  form  or  con- 
figuration capable  of  being  reproduced  upon  the  surface  or  in 
the  shape  of  bodies.  Third,  inventions  in  what  are  called  the 
useful  arts.  To  the  first  class  belong  books,  manuscripts, 
maps,  charts,  music,  prints,  cuts,  and  engravings;  to  the 
second  class  belong  statuary,  bas-reliefs,  designs  for  orna- 
menting any  surface,  and  configurations  of  bodies ;  the  third 
class  comprehends  machinery,  tools,  manufactures,  composi- 
tions of  matter,  and  processes  or  methods  in  the  arts.  Accord- 
ing to  the  practice  of  legislation  in  England  and  America,  the 
term  copyright  is  confined  to  the  exclusive  right  secured  to  the 
author  or  proprietor  of  a  writing  or  drawing,  which  may  be 
multiplied  by  the  arts  of  printing  in  any  of  its  branches.  Pro- 
perty in  the  other  classes  of  intellectual  objects  is  usually 
secured  by  letters-patent,  and  the  interest  is  called  a  patent- 
right.    But  the  distinction  is  arbitrary  and  conventional. 

The  Persons  entitled  to  secure  a  Copyright.— Any 
person  or  persons  being  a  citizen  or  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  or  resident  therein,  and  being  the  author  or  authors 
of  any  book,  map,  chart,  or  musical  composition,  or  who  shall 
invent,  design,  etch,  engrave,  work,  or  cause  to  be  engraved, 
etched,  or  worked  from  his  own  design,  any  print  or  en- 
graving, and  the  executors,  administrators,  or  legal  assigns 
of  any  such  person  or  persons,  may  secure  a  copyright  therein 
by  complying  with  the  requisitions  of  the  statute.  The  term 
*' citizen"  comprehends  both  native-born  and  naturalized  citi- 
292 


THE  LA  W  OF  COPYRIGHT,  293 

zens.  A  foreigner  may  take  a  copyright,  if  resident;  but 
whether  such  residence  must  be  permanent,  or  may  be  tem- 
porary, has  not  been  judicially  determined. 

The  Term  for  which  a  copyright  may  be  obtained  is  the 
period  of  twenty-eight  years  from  the  time  of  recording  the 
title ;  and  at  the  expiration  of  that  period  the  author,  engraver, 
or  designer,  if  living,  and  his  widow  and  children,  if  he  be 
dead,  may  re-enter  for  fourteen  years  additional  or  renewed 
term. 

The  Formalities  requisite  to  the  securing  of  the  original 
term  are— 1.  The  deposit  of  a  printed  copy  of  the  title  of  the 
book,  map,  chart,  musical  composition,  print,  cut,  or  en- 
graving, in  the  clerk's  office  of  the  United  States  district  court 
for  the  district  where  the  author  or  proprietor  resides.  2.  The 
recording  of  that  title  by  the  clerk.  3.  The  deposit  of  a  copy 
of  the  book,  <fec.  with  the  same  clerk  within  three  months  of 
the  time  of  publication.  4.  The  printing  of  a  notice  that  a 
copyright  has  been  secured  on  the  title-page  of  every  copy,  or 
the  page  immediately  following,  if  it  be  a  book,  or  on  the  face, 
if  it  be  a  map,  chart,  musical  composition,  print,  cut,  or  en- 
graving, or  on  the  title  or  frontispiece,  if  it  be  a  volume  of 
maps,  charts,  music,  or  engravings,  in  the  following  words : — 

**  Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  [1866], 
by  [L.  Johnson  &  Co.],  in  the  clerk's  office  of  the  District  Court 
of  [the  Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania]." 

To  obtain  the  renewed  or  additional  term,  these  requisites 
must  be  repeated  within  six  months  before  the  expiration  of 
the  first  term ;  and  a  notice  must  also  be  printed  within  two 
months  of  the  date  of  the  entry  for  renewal,  for  the  space  of 
^four  weeks,  in  one  or  more  newspapers  printed  in  the  United 
States,  which  notice  must  consist  of  a  copy  of  the  record  of  the 
renewal. 

Prior  to  the  act  of  Congress  "providing  for  keeping  and 
distributing  all  public  documents,"  approved  February  5, 
1859,  the  law  provided  that  one  copy  of  each  book  or  other 
production  should  be  sent  to  the  librarians  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institute,  and  one  to  the  librarian  of  the  Congress  Library. 
This  provision  is  now  repealed ;  and  while  in  existence  it  was 
questionable  whether  a  compliance  with  its  conditions  was 
essential  to  a  valid  copyright.* 

*  BouYier's  Xflfto  Dicti<mary,  published  1>y  Georg:p  W.  Childs.  Pliiladflphia, 


^^^ 

TECHNICAL  TERMS  OF  THE  CRAFT. 


Alley, — The  space  between  two  stands. 

Ascending  letters. — Letters  that  ascend 
into  the  upper  shoulder:  as,  b,  d,  1, 
&c.,  and  all  the  capitals. 

Author^ s  proof. — The  clean  proof  sent 
to  an  author  after  the  compositors' 
errors  have  been  corrected. 

Bank. — A  table  about  four  feet  high,  to 
lay  sheets  on  at  press. 

Bastard  title. — A  short  title  preceding 
the  general  title  of  a  work. 

Bastard  type. — Type  with  a  face  larger 
or  smaller  than  its  appropriate  body  : 
as.  Nonpareil  on  Minion  body,  or 
Minion  on  Nonpareil  body. 

Baiter. — Types  accidentally  injured  in 
a  form. 

Beard  of  a  letter.— The  outer  angles 
supporting  the  face  of  a  type  and  ex- 
tending to  the  shoulder. 

Bearer. — A  strip  of  regie t  to  bear  off 
the  impression  from  a  blank  page. 
A  long  piece  of  furniture,  type-high, 
used  in  working  jobs.  A  solid-faced 
type  interspersed  over  the  blank 
parts  of  a  page,  in  composing  for 
stereotyping,  to  resist  the  force  of  the 
knife  when  the  plates  are  shaved. 

Bearer-lines. — The  top  line  and  bottom 
line  in  a  page  prepared  for  stereo- 
typing. 

Bed. — The  flat  part  of  the  press  on 
which  the  form  is  laid. 

Bevels. — Slugs   cast    nearly    type-high, 
with  a  bevelled  edge,  used  by  stereo- 
typers  to  form  the  flange  on  the  side 
of  the  pl.ates, 
294 


Bite. — An  irregular  white  spot  on  the 

edge  or  corner  of   a  printed  page, 

caused  by  the  fi-isket  not  being  sufii- 

ciently  cut  out. 
Blanket. — A  woollen  cloth  used  in  the 

tympan. 
Blank-line. — A  line  of  quadrates. 
Blocks.  —  The     mahogany    frames    on 

which   stereotype  plates  are  aflSxed 

for  printing. 
Bodkin. — A  delicate  awl-like  tool  used 

for  correcting  errors  in  type. 
Body. — The  shank  of  the  letter. 
Botch. — A  bungling,  incompetent  work- 
man. 
Bottle-arsed. — Type  wider  at  the  bottom 

than  at  the  top. 
Boxes. — The  compartments  of  a  case  in 

which  the  types  are  placed. 
Brayer. — A  wooden  or  glass  rubber,  flat 

at  the  bottom,  used  to  bray  or  spread 

out  ink  on  the  ink-block. 
Break-line. — A  short  line. 
Broadside. — A  form  of  one  page,  printed 

on  one    side  of   a    whole    sheet   of 

paper. 
Broken  matter. — Pages  of  type  disrupted 

and  somewhat  intermingled. 
Bundle. — Two  reams  of  paper. 
Bur. — Rough  edge  of  a  type  which  the 

founder    neglected    to    take    off"    in 

dressing. 
Caret. — A  character  [  A  ]  used  to  denote 

the  place  where  an  omission  in  the 

proof  should  be  inserted. 
Case. — The  receptacle  for  type,  divided 

into  numerous  compartments. 


TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


295 


Cassie  paper. — Formerly,  the  two  out- 
side quires  of  a  ream,  consisting  of 
defective  sheets. 

Oasting  off.  —  Estimating  how  many 
pages  a  certain  quantity  of  copy  will 
make  in  type. 

Ceriphs. — The  fine  lines  and  cross- 
strokes  at  the  end  of  a  letter. 

Chapel. — A  printing-office. 

Chase. — A  rectangular  iron  frame  in 
which  pages  of  type  are  imposed. 

Clean  proof. — A  proof  containing  few 
faults. 

Clearing  away. — Properly  disposing  of 
materials  after  a  work  has  been  com- 
pleted. 

Close  matter. — Solid  matter  with  few 
break-lines. 

Companionship. — All  the  hands  on  a 
work. 

Composing. — Setting  type. 

Composing-rule. — A  steel  or  brass  rule, 
with  a  beak  at  one  end,  used  in  tj'pe- 
setting. 

Composing-stick.  —  An  instrument  in 
which  types  are  arranged  in  words 
and  lines. 

Correct. — A  compositor  is  said  to  correct 
when  he  amends  the  faults  marked 
in  a  proof. 

Corrections. — The  alterations  or  errors 
marked  in  a  proof ^ 

Cut-in  letter. — A  type  of  large  size  ad- 
justed at  the  beginning  of  a  line  at 
the  commencement  of  chapters. 

Cut-in  note. — A  note  justified  into  the 
side  of  a  page. 

Dead  horse. — Matter  charged  before  it 
is  set. 

Dtle,  ^. — A  proof-reader's  mark,  signi- 
fying to  take  out. 

Devil. — The  errand-boy  of  a  printing- 
office. 

Dished. — A  defect  in  electrotyped  plates, 
the  centre  of  a  letter  being  lower 
than  Its  edges. 

Distributing. — Returning  type  to  their 
various  boxes  after  having  been 
printed  from.  Spreading  ink  evenly 
over  the  surface  of  a  roller. 

Double. — Among  compositors,  a  repeti- 
tion of  words;  among  pressmen,  a 
sheet  that  is  twice  .pulled  and 
mackled. 


Dressing  a  chase  or  form. — Fitting  the 
pages  and  chase  with  furniture  and 
quoins. 

Drive  out. — To  space  widely. 

DucTc's-bill. — A  tongue  cut  in  a  piece  of 
stout  paper  and  pasted  on  the  tympan 
at  the  bottom  of  the  tympan-sheet,  to 
support  the  paper  when  laid  on  the 
tympan. 

Duodecimo,  or  12mo. — Twelve  pages  to 
a  form. 

Em. — The  square  of  the  body  of  a  type. 

En. — Half  the  dimensions  of  the  pre- 
ceding. 

Even  page.—'Yl\\e  2d,  4th,  6th,  or  any 
even-numbered  page  of  a  book. 

Fat. — Poetry  and  leaded  matter. 

Fat  face,  or  Fat  letter. — Broad-stemmed 
letter. 

First  form. — The  form  first  printed, 
which  generally  contains  the  first 
page  of  a  sheet. 

Fly. — The  person  or  apparatus  that 
takes  off  the  sheets  from  the  press. 

Folio. — Two  pages  to  a  form. 

Foot-sticks. — Sloping  pieces  (if  furniture 
placed  at  the  bottom  <<\'  pams,  be- 
tween which  and  tin-  t  base  the 
quoins  are  driven  to  fasten  the  pages. 

Form. — The  pages  when  imposed  in  a 
chase. 

Foul  proof. — A  proof  with  many  faults 
marked  in  it. 

Fount. — An  assortment  of  type  in  de- 
finite proportions. 

Friar. — A  light  patcli  in  a  printed 
sheet,  caused  bj'  defective  rolling. 

Frisket. — An  iron  frame  fastened  by  a 
hinge  to  the  upper  part  of  the  tym- 
pan, to  hold  the  sheet  of  paper  fast  as 
it  goes  in  and  comes  from  the  press. 

Fu/ige. — To  contrive  without  proper 
materials. 

Full  press. — When  two  men  work  at  the 
press  with  hand-rollers. 

Furniture. — Strips  of  wood  or  metal 
placed  around  and  between  pages 
when  imposed. 

Galley. — A  wooden  or  brass  flat  oblong 
tray,  with  side  and  head  ledges,  for 
holding  type  when  composed. 

Galley-slaves. — An  ancient  term  of  de- 
rision applied  by  pressmen  to  com- 
positors. 


296 


TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


Gauge. — A  strip  of  reglet  with  a  notch 
in  it,  passed  with  the  make-up,  to  de- 
note the  length  of  the  pages. 

Get  in. — To  set  close. 

Good  colour. — Sheets  printed  neither 
too  black  nor  too  light. 

Guide. — A  piece  of  metal  frequently 
used  to  denote  the  last  line  set. 

Gutter-sticks. — Furniture  used  in  im- 
position to  separate  the  pages. 

Half  press.  —  When  but  one  person 
works  at  the  press. 

Half-title. — The  title  of  a  book  inserted 
in  the  upper  portion  of  the  first  page 
of  matter. 

Head-sticks. — Furniture  put  at  the  head 
of  pages  in  imposition,  to  make  mar- 
gin. 

Hell. — The  receptacle  for  broken  or 
battered  letters;  the  old-metal  box; 
the  shoe. 

High-line. — Term  applied  to  a  type  that 
ranges  above  the  rest  in  a  line. 

High  {or  low)  to  paper. — Applied  to  a 
type  cast  higher  or  lower  than  the 
rest  of  the  fount. 

Horse. — The  stage  on  the  bank  on  which 
pressmen  set  the  heap  of  paper. 

Horsing. — Charging  for  work  before  it 
is  executed. 

Imposing. — Arranging  and  locking  up  a 
form  of  type  in  a  chase. 

Imposing-stone.  —  The  stone  on  which 
compositors  impose  and  correct  forms. 

Imprint. — The  name  of  the  printer  or 
of  the  publisher  appended  to  jobs  or 
title-pages. 

Inferior  letters. — Small  letters  cast  near 
the  bottom  of  the  line. 

Inset. — Same  as  offcut. 

Jeff. — To  throw  for  a  choice  with  quad- 
rates instead  of  dice. 

Justifying. — Spacing  out  lines  accu- 
rately. 

Keep  in. — To  crowd  in  by  thin  spacing. 

Keep  out. — To  drive  out  or  expand  mat- 
ter by  wide  spacing. 

Kerned  letter. — Type  of  which  a  part  of 
the  face  hangs  over  the  body. 

Laying  cases. — Filling  cases  with  a 
fount  of  new  type. 

Laying  pages. — Placing  pages  on  the 
stone  in  a  proper  order  for  imposi- 
tion. 


Leaders.— -Dots,  or  hyphens  placed  at  in- 
tervals of  one  or  more  ems  in  length, 
to  guide  the  eye  across  the  line  to  the 
folio  in  tables  of  contents,  &c. 

Leads. — Thin  strips  of  metal  cast  of 
various  thicknesses,  quadrate-high, 
to  separate  lines  of  type. 

Lean. — Close  and  solid  matter. 

Lean  face.— Light,  thin  type. 

Letter  hangs. — When  the  page  is  out  of 
square. 

Letter-press  printing. — Printing  from 
types. 

Ligatures. — Two  or  more  letters  cast  on 
the  same  shank,  as  ff,  fi,  fl,  flB,  fla, 
83,  oe. 

Locking  wjp.— Tightening  up  a  form  by 
means  of  quoins. 

Logotypes. — The  same  as  ligatures. 

Long  cross.— The  bar  that  divides  a 
chase  the  longest  way. 

Long  pull.—\Nhen.  the  bar  is  brought 
close  to  the  cheek  of  a  press. 

Low  case. — When  the  compositor  has 
set  almost  all  the  letters  out  of  his 
case. 

Lower  case. — The  case  containing  the 
small  letters  of  the  alphabet,  figures, 
points,  &c. 

Lou)-line. — Applied  to  a  type  that  ranges 
lower  than  the  rest  in  a  line. 

Mackle. — When  part  of  the  impression 
appears  double. 

Make-up. — To  arrange  the  lines  of  mat- 
ter into  pages. 

Making  margin.  —  In  imposition,  ar- 
ranging the  space  between  the  pages 
of  a  form  so  that  the  margin  will  be 
properly  proportioned. 

Making  ready. — Preparing  a  form  on 
the  press  for  printing. 

Mallet.— ^A  wooden  hammer. 

Matter. — Composed  type. 

Measure. — The  width  of  a  page. 

Monk. — A  black  spot  in  a  printed  sheet, 
owing  to  the  ink  not  being  properly 
distributed. 

leaked  form. — A  form  without  furni- 
ture. 

Nicks. — Hollows  cast  in  the  front  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  shank  of  a  type,  to 
show  the  compositor  how  to  place  it 
in  his  stick. 

Octavo,  or  8vo. — Eight  pages  to  a  form. 


TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


297 


Odd  page  or  folio. — The  1st,  3d,  and  all 

uneven-numbered  pages. 
Off. — Signifies  that  the  pressman  has 

worked  off  the  form. 
Offcut. — A  portion  of  a  sheet  that  is  cut 

off  before  folding. 
Off  its  /ec«.— When  matter    does   not 

stand  upright. 
Open  matter. — Matter  widely  leaded  or 

containing  numerous  break-lines. 
Out. — An  omission  marked  in  a  proof 

by  the  reader. 
Out  of  register. — When   the   pages  do 

not  back  each  other. 
Overlay. — A  scrap  of  paper  pasted  on 

the  tympan-sheet  to  bring    up    the 

impression. 
Overrunning. — Carrying    words    back- 
ward or  forward  in  correcting. 
Page-cord. — Twine  used  for    tying   up 


Passing  the  make-up. — Passing  to  the 
next  hand  in  order  the  lines  remain- 
ing (if  any)  after  a  compositor  has 
made  up  his  matter,  together  with 
the  gauge  and  proper  folio. 

Peel. — A  broad,  thin  board  with  a  long 
handle. 

Perfecting. — Printing  the  second  form 
of  a  sheet. 

Pi. — Type  promiscuously  intermingled. 

Pick. — A  particle  of  ink  or  paper  im- 
bedded in  the  hollow  of  a  letter,  fill- 
ing up  its  face  and  occasioning  a  spot. 

Pigs. — An  ancient  nickname  given  in 
derision  by  compositors  to  pressmen. 
The  press-room  was  called  a  pigsty. 

Planer. — A  smooth  block  of  wood  used 
for  levelling  the  surface  of  pages  of 
type  when  imposed. 

Planing  down. — To  bring  down  types 
evenly  on  their  feet,  by  laying  a 
planer  on  the  page  and  striking  it 
firmly  with  a  mallet. 

Platen. — The  part  of  a  printing-press 
which,  under  the  influence  of  the 
lever,  gives  the  impression  to  a  sheet. 

Point-holes. — Fine  holes  made  by  the 
points  to  register  the  second  im- 
pression by. 

Points. — Two  thin  pieces  of  steel  with 
a  point  at  one  end,  adjusted  to  the 
tympan  with  screws,  to  make  re- 
gister. 


Quadrate. — A  low  square  blank  type, 
used  to  indent  the  first  line  of  a  para- 
graph, and  to  fill  up  blank  spaces. 

Quarters. — Octavos  and  twelves  are  said 
to  be  imposed  in  quarters,  not  from 
their  equal  divisions,  but  because 
they  are  imposed  and  locked  up  in 
four  parts. 

Quarto^  or  Uto. — Four  pages  to  a  form. 

Quire. — Twenty-four  sheets  of  paper. 

Quoins. — Small  wedges  for  locking  up 
a  form. 

Quotation  furniture. — Quotations  cast 
of  various  sizes  in  length  and  width, 
to  be  used  for  blanking  and  as  furni- 
ture. 

Quotations. — Large  hollowed  quadrates. 

Rack. — Receptacle  for  cases. 

Ratting. — Working  at  less  than  the 
established  prices. 

Ream. — Twenty  quires  of  paper. 

Recto. — Right-hand  page. 

References. — Letters  or  characters  serv- 
ing to  direct  the  reader's  attention  to 
notes  at  the  foot  of  a  page. 

Register. — To  cause  the  pages  in  a  sheet 
to  print  precisely  back  to  back. 

Register  sheet. — The  sheet  used  to  make 
register. 

Reglet. — Thin  furniture,  of  an  equal 
thickness  all  its  length.  It  is  made 
to  the  thickness  of  type. 

Reiteration. — The  form  printed  on  the 
second  side. 

Revise. — The  last  proof  of  a  form  before 
working  it  off. 

Riding. — One  colour  falling  on  another. 
Type  at  the  end  of  a  line  catching  . 
against  a  lead. 

Rise. — A  form  is  said  to  rise  when,  in 
raising  it  from  the  correcting-stone, 
no  letters  drop  out. 

Roller.  —  A  hollow  wooden  cylinder 
covered  with  composition,  which,  set 
in  an  iron  frame,  revolves  upon  a  rod, 
and  is  used  for  inking  type. 

Rounce. — The  handle  for  running  in  and 
out  the  carriage  of  a  hand-press. 

Round  pick. — A  dot  in  a  letter  in  a 
stereotype  plate  caused  by  an  air- 
bubble. 

Running  title. — The  title  of  the  book 
or  subject  placed  at  the  top  of  the 
pages. 


298 


TECHNICAL  TERMS, 


Runs  on  sorts. — Requiring  an  inordinate 
proportion  of  particular  letters. 

Saw-block. — A  box  similar  to  a  carpen- 
ter's mitre-block,  to  guide  in  cutting 
furniture,  &c. 

Schedule. — A  list  passed  with  the  make- 
up, containing  folios  on  which  the 
compositor  marks  his  name  opposite 
to  the  pages  set  by  him. 

Set  off. — When  sheets  that  are  newly 
worked  off  soil  those  that  come  in 
contact  with  them,  they  are  said  to 
set  off. 

Shank. — The  square  metal  upon  which 
the  face  of  a  letter  stands. 

Sheep's-foot. — An  iron  hammer  with  a 
claw-end. 

Shooting-stick. — A  wedge-shaped  instru- 
ment for  locking  up  a  form. 

Short  cross. — The  short  bar  which,  cross- 
ing the  long  bar,  divides  the  chase 
into  quarters. 

Shoulder. — The  upper  surface  of  the 
shank  of  a  type  not  covered  by  the 
letter. 

Side-sorts. — Types  in  the  side  and  upper 
boxes  of  a  case,  consisting  of  letters 
not  frequently  used. 

Side-sticks. — Sloping  furniture  on  the 
outside  of  the  pages  next  to  the 
chase,  where  the  quoins  are  inserted. 

Signature. — A  letter  or  a  figure  used  at 
the  bottom  of  the  first  page  of  a 
sheet,  to  direct  the  binder  in  placing 
the  sheets  in  a  volume. 

Slice  galley. — A  galley  with  an  upper 
false  bottom,  called  a  slice,  used  for 
large  pages  and  jobs. 

Slug. — A  thick  lead. 

Slur. — A  blurred  impression  in  a  printed 
sheet. 

Solid  pick. — A  letter  in  a  stereotype 
plate  filled  up  with  metal,  resulting 
from  an  imperfect  mould. 

Sorts. — The  letters  in  the  several  case- 
boxes  are  separately  called  sorts,  in 
printers'  and  founders'  language. 

Space-rules. — Fine  lines,  cast  type-high, 
and  of  even  ems  in  length,  for  table 
and  algebraical  work. 


Spaces. — Low  blank  types  used  to  sepa- 
rate words. 

Squabble. — A  page  or  form  is  squabbled 
when  the  letters  are  twisted  out  of  a 
square  position. 

Stand. — The  frame  on  which  the  cases 
are  placed. 

Stem. — The  straight  flat  strokes  of  a 
straight  letter. 

Stereotype     printing. — Printing     from 


Stet. — Written  opposite  to  a  word,  to 
signify  that  the  word  erroneously 
struck  out  in  a  proof  shall  remain. 

Sub. — A  compositor  occasionally  em- 
ployed on  a  daily  paper,  to  fill  the 
place  of  an  absentee. 

Superior  letters. — Letters  of  a  small  face, 
cast  by  the  founder  near  the  top  of 
the  line. 

Table-work. — Matter  consisting  partly 
of  rules  and  figures. 

Take,  or  Takitig. — A  given  portion  of 
copy. 

Token. — Two  hundred  and  fifty  sheets. 

Turn  for  a  letter. — When  a  sort  runs 
short,  a  letter  of  the  same  thickness 
is  substituted,  placed  bottom  up- 
ward. 

Tympan. — A  frame  covered  with  parch- 
ment and  attached  to  the  press-bed, 
to  lay  the  sheet  on  before  printing. 

Underlay. — A  piece  of  paper  or  card 
placed  under  types  or  cuts  to  improve 
the  impression. 

Upper  case. — The  case  containing  capital 
and  small  capital  letters,  fractions,  &c. 

Verso. — Left-hand  page. 

Wayz-goose. — A  term  given  in  England 
to  the  annual  dinner  customary  among 
printers  there  during  the  summer 
months. 

White  line. — A  line  of  quadrates. 

White  page. — A  blank  page. 

White  paper. — Until  the  second  side  of 
a  sheet  is  printed,  pressmen  call  the 
heap  white  paper. 

Working  in  pocket. — When  the  hands 
share  equally  their  earnings  on  a 
work. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


A.— Acting. 

A.  or  Ans. — Answer. 

A.  A.  G.— Assistant  Adjutant-General. 

A.A.P.S.  —  American  Association  for 
the  Promotion  of  Science. 

A.A.S. — Academise  Americanse  Socius, 
Fellow  of  the  American  Academy  (of 
Arts  and  Sciences). 

A.  A.  S.  ^.-^Americanse  Antiquarianse  So- 
cietatis  Socius,  Member  of  the  Ameri- 
can Antiquarian  Society. 

A.B.-f-Artium  Baccalaureus,  Bachelor 
of  Arts. 

A. B.C. P.M.— American  Board  of  Com- 
missioners for  Foreign  Missions. 

Abp. — Archbishop . 

Abr. — Abridgment. 

A.C. — Ante  Ohristum,  before  the  birth 
of  Christ. 

A.  C. — Archchancellor. 

Acct. — Account. 

A.  C.  S. — American  Colonization  Society. 

A.  D. — Anno  Domini,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord. 

A.  D.  C. — Aide-de-camp. 

Adj . — Adj  ecti  ve. 

Adjt. — Adjutant. 

Adj  t.-Gen. — Adj  utant-General . 

Ad  lib. — Ad  libitum,  at  pleasure. 

Adm. — Admiral ;  Admiralty. 

Adm.  Co. — Admiralty  Court. 

Admr. — Administrator. 

Admx. — Administratrix. 

Ad  V. — Ad  valorem,  at  (or  on)  the  value. 

Adv. — Adverb. 

^t. — ^tatis,  of  age;  aged. 

A.  F.  B.  S. — American  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society. 


A.  G. — Adjutant-General. 

Ag. — Argentum  (silver). 

Agr. — Agriculture. 

A.G.  S.S. — American  Geographical  and 

Statistical  Society. 
Agt. — Agent. 
A.  H. — Anno  Hegirse,  in  the  year  of  the 

Ilegira. 
A.  H.  M.  S. — American  Home  Missionary 

Society. 
Ala. — Alabama. 
Aid. — Alderman. 
Alex. — Alexander. 
Alg, — Algebra. 
Alt.— Altitude. 
A.M. — Anno  mundi,  in  the  year  of  the 

world. 
A.  M. — Artium  Magister,  Master  of  Arts. 
A.M. — Ante   meridiem,   before    noon; 

morning. 
Amb . — Ambassador. 
Amer. — American. 
AMM. — Amalgams,  amalgamation. 
Amt. — Amount. 
An. — Anno,  in  the  year. 
An.  A.  C. — Anno  ante  Christum,  in  the 

year  before  Christ. 
Anat. — Anatomy. 
Anc. — Ancient ;  anciently. 
And. — Andrew. 
Ang.-Sax. — Anglo-Saxon. 
Anon. — Anonymous. 
Anth. — Anthony. 
Aor.  or  aor. — Aorist. 
A.O.S.S. — Americanse  Orientalis  Socie- 

tatis  Socius,  Member  of  the  American 

Oriental  Society. 
Ap. — Apostle;  Appius. 

299 


300 


ABBREVIA  TIONjS. 


Ap. — Apud,  in  the  writings  of;  as 
quoted  by. 

A.  P.  Gr.  or  Ast.  P.  G. — Professor  of  Astro- 
nomy in  Gresham  College. 

Apo. — Apogee. 

Apoc. — Apocalypse. 

App. — Appendix. 

Apr. — April. 

A.  Q.  M.G. — Assistant  Quartermaster- 
General. 

A.  R. — Anna  Regina,  Queen  Anne. 

A.  R. — Anno  regni^  year  of  the  reign. 

A.R.  A. — Associate  of  the  Royal  Aca- 
demy. 

Arch. — Archibald. 

Arg. — Argumento,  by  an  argument 
drawn  from  such  a  law. 

Arith. — Arithmetic. 

Ark . — Ar  kan  sas . 

A.R.R. — Anno  regni  regis,  in  the  year 
of  the  reign  of  the  king. 

A.R.S.S, — Antiquariorum  Regise  Socie- 
tatis  Socius,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety of  Antiquaries. 

Art;— Article. 

A.S.  or  Assist.  Sec. — Assistant  Secre- 
tary. 

A.S.A. — American  Statistical  Associa- 
tion. 

A.  S.  S.  U. — American  Sunday  -  School 
Union. 

Astrol . — Astrology. 

Astron. — Astronomy. 

A.  T. — Archtreasurer. 

A.  T.  S. — American  Tract  Society. 

Ats. — At  suit  of. 

Atty. — Attorney. 

Atty.-Gen. — Attorney-General. 

A.U.A- — American  Unitarian  Associa- 
tion. 

Aub.  Theol.  Sem. — Auburn  Theological 
Seminary. 

A.  U.  C. — Anno  urbis  conditse,  or,  ah  urbe 
conditd,  in  the  year  from  the  building 
of  the  city  (Rome). 

Aug. — August. 

Aur. — Aurum,  gold. 

Auth.  Ver. — Authorized  Version  (of  the 
Bible). 

Av. — Average;  Avenue. 

Avoir. — Avoirdupois. 

A.Y.M. — Ancient  York  Masons. 

b. — Born. 

B.A. — Bachelor  of  Arts. 


Bal. — Balance. 

Bait. — Baltimore. 

Bar. — Baruch. 

Bart,  or  Bt. — Baronet. 

Bbl.— Barrel. 

B.  C— Before  Christ. 

B.C.L.— Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. 

B.D. — Baccalaureus  Divinitatis,  Bache- 
lor of  Divinity. 

Bds.  or  bds. — Boards  (bound  in). 

Benj. — Benjamin. 

Bk.— Book. 

B.LL. — Baccalaureus  Legum,  Bachelor 
of  Laws. 

B.  M. — Baccalaureus  Medicmse,  Bachelor 
of  Medicine. 

Bost. — Boston. 

Bot. — Botany. 

Bp. — Bishop. 

B.  R. — Banco  Regis  or  Reginse,  the 
King's  or  Queen's  Bench. 

Br. — Brother. 

Brig. — Brigade ;  Brigadier. 

Brig.-Gen. — Brigadier-General. 

Brit.  Mus. — British  Museum. 

Bro. — Brother. 

Br.  Univ. — Brown  University. 

B.  S. — Bachelor  in  the  Sciences. 

B.  V. — Beata  Virgo,  Blessed  Virgin. 
B.V. — Bene  vale,  farewell. 

C,  Ch.  or  Chap.*— Chapter. 

C.  or  Cent. — Centum,  a  hundred. 

caet.  par. — Cseteris  paribus,  other  things 

being  equal. 
Cal. — California;  Calends. 
Can. — Canon. 
Cant. — Canticles. 

Cap.  or  c. — Caput,  capitulum,  chapter. 
Caps. — Capitals. 
Capt. — Captain. 
Capt.-Gen. — Captain-General. 
Cash. — Cashier, 
ca.  resp. —  Capias  ad  respondendum,  a 

legal  writ, 
ca.  sa. — Capias  ad  satisfaciendum,  a  legal 

writ. 
Cath. — Catherine. 
C.B. — Companion  of  the  Bath. 
C.B. —  Communis      Bancus,      Common 

Bench. 
C.C. — Caius  College;  Account  Current. 
C.  C.  C— Corpus  Christi  College. 
C.  C.  P.— Court  of  Common  Pleas. 
C.E.— Canada  East. 


ABBBEVIA  TIONS. 


301 


C.E. — Civil  Engineer. 

Cel.  or  Celt.— Celtic. 

Cf.  or  cf. — Confer,  compare. 

C.G. — Commissary -General ;  Consul- 
General. 

C.  H. — Court-house. 

Ch.— Church ;  Chapter;  Charles. 

Chanc. — Chancellor. 

Chap. — Chapter. 

Chas. — Charles. 

Chem. — Chemistry. 

Chr. — Christopher. 

Chron. — Chronicles. 

Cin. — Cincinnati. 

C.  J. — Chief- Justice. 

Clk.— Clerk. 

C.  M. — Common  Metre. 

C.M.G. — Companion  of  the  Order  of  St. 
Michael  and  St.  George. 

Co. — Company ;  county. 

C.O.D. — Cash  (or  collect)  on  delivery. 

Col. — Colorado;  Colonel;  Colossians. 

Coll.  —  Collector;  Colloquial;  College; 
Collection. 

Com. — Commerce;  Committee;  Com- 
mentary ;  Commissioner ;  Commo- 
dore. 

Com.  Arr. — Committee  of  Arrangements. 

Comdg. — Commanding. 

Comm. — Commentary. 

Comp. — Compare ;  Compound. 

Com.  Ver.  —  Common  Version  (of  the 
Bible). 

Con. — Contra,  against ;  in  opposition. 

Con.  Cr. — Contra,  credit. 

Conch. — Conchology. 

Con  g. — C  on  gr  ess . 

Conj.  or  conj. — ^Conjunction. 

Conn,  or  Ct. — Connecticut. 

Const. — Constable ;  Constitution. 

Cont. — Contra. 

Cor. — Corinthians. 

Corol . — Corollary. 

Cor.  Sec. — Corresponding  Secretary. 

C.P. — Common  Pleas. 

C.P.— Court  of  Probate. 

C.P.S. — Custos  Privati  Sigilli,  Keeper 
of  the  Privy  Seal. 

C.R. — Custos  Eotulorum,  Keeper  of  the 
Rolls. 

Cr. — Creditor;  credit. 

Crim.  Con. — Criminal  conversation; 
adultery. 

C.S. — Court  of  Sessions. 


C.  S. — Custos  Sigilli,  Keeper  of  the  Seal. 
Ct.,  cts. — Cent;  Cents. 

C.  Theod. — Codice  Theodosiano,  in  the 
Theodosian  Code. 

C.W.— Canada  West. 

Cwt. — Hundredweight. 

Cyc. — Cyclopedia. 

d. — Denarius   or   Denarii,    penny    or 

pence, 
d.— Died. 

D. — Five  hundred. 
Dan. — Daniel;  Danish. 

D.  B.  or  Domesd.  B. — Domesday-Book. 
D.C. — Da  Capo,  again. 

D.  C. — District  of  Columbia. 

D.C.L.— Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 

D.D. — Divinitatis  Doctor,  Doctor  of 
Divinity. 

Dea. — Deacon. 

Dec. — December ;  Declination. 

Deg. — Degree  or  degrees. 

Del. — Delaware ;  Delegate. 

Del.  or  del.  —  Delineavit,  he  (or  she) 
drew  it. 

Dep. — Deputy. 

Dept. — Department. 

Deut. — Deu  teronomy . 

D.F.— Dean  of  the  Faculty. 

Dft.  or  Deft.— Defendant. 

D.  G. — Dei  gratid,  b}'  the  grace  of  God. 

D.  G. — Deo  gratias,  thanks  to  God. 

Diam. — Diameter. 

Diet. — Dictator ;  Dictionary. 

Dim. — Diminutive. 

Disc. — Discount. 

Diss. — Dissertation. 

Dist. — District. 

Dist.-Atty. — District-Attorney. 

D.  M. — Doctor  of  Music. 

Do. — Ditto,  the  same. 

Dols. — Dollars. 

D.O.M. — Deo  Optimo  maximo,  to  God, 
the  best,  the  greatest. 

Doz. — Dozen. 

D.  P. — Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

Dr. — Debtor;  Doctor. 

D.  S. — Dal  segno,  from  the  sign. 

d.s.b. — Debit  sans  breve. 

B.T.— Doctor  Theologise,  Doctor  of  Di- 
vinity. 

D.  V. — Deo  volente,  God  willing. 

Dwt. — Pennyweight. 

E.— East. 

ea. — Each. 


26 


302 


ABBBEVIA  TIONS, 


E.  by  S.— East  by  South. 

Eben. — Ebenezer. 

Eccl. — Ecclesiastes. 

Ecclus. — Ecclesiasticus. 

Ed. — Editor;  Edition. 

Edm. — Edmund. 

Edw. — Edward. 

E.  E. — Errors  excepted. 

e.  g. — Exempli  gratioi,  for  example. 

e.  g. — Ex  grege,  among  the  rest. 

E.  I. — East  Indies  or  East  India. 

Eliz.— Elizabeth. 

E.  Ion. — East  longitude. 

Encyc. — Encyclopedia. 

E.  N.  E.— East-Northeast. 

Eng. — England;  English. 

Ent. — Entomology. 

Env.  Ext. — Envoy  Extraordinary. 

Ep. — Epistle. 

Eph. — Ephesians;  Ephraim. 


E.  S.  E.— East-Southeast. 

Esq. — Esquire. 

Esth.— Esther. 

et  al. — Et  alii,  and  others. 

et  seq. — Et  sequentia,  and  what  follows. 

etc.  or  &c. — Et  cseteri,  et  cseterse,  et  csetera, 

and  others ;  and  so  forth. 
Ex. — Example. 
Ex. — Exodus. 

Exc. — Excellency ;  exception. 
Exch. — Exchequer. 
Exec.  Com. — Executive  Committee. 
Execx.    Executrix. 
Exr.  or  Exec. — Executor. 
Ez. — Ezra. 
Ezek. — Ezekiel. 

E.  &0.E. — Errors   and   omissions   ex- 
cepted. 

Fahr. — Fahrenheit. 

F.A.M. — Free  and  Accepted  Masons. 

Far.    Farthing. 

F.  A.  S. — Fellow  of  the  Antiquarian  So- 
ciety. 

fcap.  or  fcp. — Foolscap. 

F.D.  —  Fidei  Defensor  or  Defensatrix, 

Defender  of  the  Faith. 
Fe. — Ferrum  (iron). 
Feb. — February. 
Fee.    Fecit,  he  did  it. 
Fem. — Feminine. 
F.E.S.— Fellow  of  the   Entomological 

Society ;  of  the  Ethnological  Society. 
Ff.— The  Pandects. 


F.G.S.— Fellow  of  the  Geological  So- 
ciety. 

F.H.S.— Fellow  of  the  Horticultural 
Society. 

fi.  fa. — Fieri  facias,  cause  it  to  be  done. 

Fid.  Def.— Defender  of  the  Faith. 

Fig. — Figure. 

Fir. — Firkin. 

Fla.— Florida. 

F.  L.  S. — Fellow  of  the  Linnaean  Society. 

FoL— Folio. 

For. — Foreign. 

F.  P.  S.— Fellow  of  the  Philological  So' 
ciety. 

Fr. — Franc;  francs. 

Fr. — Fragmentum,  fragment. 

Fr. — Francis. 

F.  R.  A.  S.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Astro- 
nomical Society. 

F.R.C.S.L.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Surgeons,  London. 

Fred. — Frederick. 

F.R.G.S.  — Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society. 

Fri. — Friday. 

F.R.S.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Frs. — Frisian. 

F.R.S.E.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society, 
Edinburgh. 

F.R.S.L.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society, 
London. 

F.R.S.L.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  Literature. 

F.S.  A.— Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Arts. 

F.  S.  A.  E.— Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Anti- 
quaries, Edinburgh. 

Ft.— Foot;  feet;  Fort. 

Fur. — Furlong. 

F.  Z.  S.— Fellow  of  the  Zoological  So- 
ciety. 

G.  or  g. — Guineas. 

G.A. — General  Assembly. 

Ga. — Georgia. 

Gal. — Galatians;  Gallon. 

G.B. — Great  Britain. 

G.C.— Grand  Chapter. 

G.C.B.— Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath. 

G.  C.  H. — Grand  Cross  of  Hanover. 

G.C.L.H. — Grand  Cross  of  the  Legion 

of  Honour. 
G.E. — Grand  Encampment. 
Gen. — Genesis;  General. 
Gent. — Gentleman. 
Geo. — George. 


ABBBEVIA  TIONS. 


303 


Geog. — Geography. 

Geol. — Geology. 

Geom. — Geometry. 

Ger. — Germany;  German. 

G.  L. — Grand  Lodge. 

Gl. — Glossa,  a  gloss. 

G.  M. — Grand  Master. 

G.O. — General  Order. 

Goth.— Gothic. 

Gov. — Governor. 

Gov.-Gen. — Governor-General. 

G.  R. — Georgius  Rex,  King  George. 

Gr. — Greek;  Gross. 

Gram. — Grammar. 

Gro. — Gross. 

Grot. — Grotius. 

h.a. — Hoc  anno,  this  year. 

Hab . — Habakkuk . 

Hab.  Corp. — Habeas  corpus,  you  may 
have  the  body. 

Hab.  fa.  poss. — Habere  facias  possessio- 
nem. 

Hab.  fa.  seis. — Habere  facias  seisinam. 

Hag. — Haggai. 

Ham.  Coll. — Hamilton  College. 

H.B.C. — Hudson's  Bay  Company. 

H.B.M. — His  or  Her  Britannic  Majesty. 

H.C.— House  of  Commons. 

Hdkf.— Handkerchief. 

h.e. — Hoc  est,  that  is,  or  this  is. 

Heb. — Hebrews. 

Her. — H  eral  dry . 

Hf.-bd.— Half-bound. 

Hg. — Hydrargyrum,  mercury. 

Hhd. — Hogshead. 

Hist. — History. 

H.J.S. — Hie  jacet  sepultus,  Here  lies 
buried. 

H.L. — House  of  Lords. 

H.M. — His  Majesty. 

H.M.P.  —  Hoc  monumentum  posuit, 
erected  this  monument. 

Hon. — Honourable. 

Hort. — Horticulture. 

Hos. — Hosea. 

H.  R. — House  of  Representatives. 

H.R.E. — Holy  Roman  Emperor. 

H.  R.  H. — His  Royal  Highness. 

H.  R.  I.  P. — Hie  requiescit  in  pace.  Here 
rests  in  peace. 

H.  S. — Hie  situs,  Here  lies. 

H.  S.  H. — His  Serene  Highness. 

h.t. — Hoc  titulum,  thia  title;  Jtoc  tituli, 
in  or  under  this  title. 


h.  V. — Hoc  verbum,  this  word ;  his  verbis, 

in  these  words. 
Hund. — Hundred. 
L  II.  III.  —  One,   two,   three,  or  first, 

econd,  third. 
la. — Iowa. 

lb.  or  ibid. — Ibidem,  in  the  same  place. 
Ich. — Ichthyology. 
Ictus. — JuriseonsuUus. 
Id. — Idem,  the  same. 
Id.  T.— Idaho  Territory, 
i.e. — Id  est,  that  is. 
I.II.  M. — Jesus  hominum  mundi,  Jesus 

the  Saviour  of  the  world. 
I.H.S. — Jesus  hominum  Salvator,  Jesus 

the  Saviour  of  men. 
ij. — Two  (med.). 
111.— Illinois. 
In. — Inch;  inches, 
incog. — Incognito,  unknown. 
Incor. — Incorporated. 
Ind. — Indiana;  Index. 
Ind.  Ter. — Indian  Territory. 
Indef. — Indefinite. 
Inf — Infra,  beneath  or  below, 
in  f. — In  fine,  at  the  end  of  the  title, 

law,  or  paragraph  quoted, 
in  lim. — In  limine,  at  the  outset, 
in  loc. — In  loco,  in  the  place;  on  the 

passage, 
in  pr. — In  principio,  in  the  beginning 

and  before  the  first  paragraph  of  a 

law. . 
I. N.R.I. — Jesus  Nazarenus,  Rex  Judsea- 

rum,  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  King  of  the 

Jews. 
Inst. — Instant,  of  this  month ;  Institutes. 
In  sum. — In  snmma,  in  the  summary. 
Int. — Interest. 
Interj . — In  terj  ection. 
in  trans. — In  transitu,  on  the  passage, 
lutrod. — Introduction. 
I.  O.O.F.— Independent  Order  of  Odd- 
Fellows. 
1. 0.  U. — I  owe  you. 
I.  q. — Idem  quod,  the  same  as. 
Isa. — Isaiah. 
Isl. — Island. 
Ital. — Italic;  Italian. 
IV. — Four  or  fourth. 
IX. — Nine  or  ninth. 
J. — Justice  or  Judge.    JJ. — Justices, 
j. — One  (med). 
J.  A. — Judge-Advocate. 


304 


abbhevia  tionjS. 


Jac. — Jacob. 

Jan. — January. 

Jas. — James. 

J. CD, — Juris  Civilis  Doctor,  Doctor  of 

Civil  Law. 
J.  D. — Jurum  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Laws. 
Jer. — Jeremiah. 
Jno. — John. 
Jona. — Jonathan. 
Jos. — Joseph. 
Josh. — Joshua. 
J.  P. — Justice  of  the  Peace. 
J.Prob. — Judge  of  Probate. 
J.R. — Jacohus  Hex,  King  James. 
Jr.  or  Jun. — Junior. 
J.  U.  D.  or  J.  V.  D. — Juris  utriusque  Doc- 
tor, Doctor  of  both  Laws  (of  the  Canon 
and  the  Civil  Law). 
Jud. — Judith. 
Judg. — Judges. 
Judge-Adv. — Judge-Advocate. 
Jul.  Per. — Julian  Period. 
Jus.  P. — Justice  of  the  Peace. 
Just. — Justinian. 
J.  W. — Junior  Warden. 
K.— King. 

K.  A. — Knight  of  St.  Andrew,  in  Eussia. 
^^.  A.  N, — Knight  of  Alexander  Nevskoi, 

in  Russia. 
Kan. — Kansas. 
K.B. — King's  Bench. 
K.B.— Knight  of  the  Bath. 
K.B.  A.— Knight  of  St.  Bento  d'Avis,  in 

Portugal. 
K.B.E.— Knight  of  the  Black  Eagle,  in 

Russia. 
K.C. — King's  Council. 
K.  C— Knight  of  the  Crescent,  in  Turkey. 
K.C.B.  —  Knight    Commander    of    the 

Bath. 
K.C.H.  —  Knight   Commander  of   Ha- 
nover. 
K.  C.  S.— Knight  of  Charles  III.  of  Spain. 
K.E.— Knight  of  the  Elephant,  in  Den- 
mark. 
K.F.— Knight  of  Ferdinand  of  Spain. 
K.r.M.— Knight  of  St.  Ferdinand  and 

Merit,  in  Sicily. 
K.G.— Knight  of  the  Garter. 
K.G.C.— Knight  of  the  Grand  Cross. 
K.G.C.B.— Knight  of  the  Grand  Cross 

of  the  Bath. 
K.G.F.— Knight  of  the  Golden  Fleece, 
in  Spain. 


K.G.H.— Knight  of  the  Guelphs  of  Ha- 
nover. 
K.G.Y. — Knight  of  Gustavu^  Vasa  of 

Sweden. 
K.H. — Knight  of  Hanover. 
Ki. — Kings. 
Kingd. — Kingdom. 
K.J. — Knight  of  St.  Joachim. 
K.L.  or  K.L.  A.— Knight  of  Leopold  of 

Austria. 
K.L.H.— Knight  of  the  Legion  of  Ho- 
nour. 
K.M.— Knight  of  Malta. 
K.  Mess. — King's  Messenger. 
K.  M.  H.— Knight  of  Merit,  in  Holstein. 
K.M.J. — Knight  of  Maximilian  Joseph 

of  Bavaria. 
K.M.T.— Knight  of  Maria  Theresa  of 

Austria. 
Knick. — Knickerbocker. 
K.N.S.— Knight  of  the  Royal   North 

Star,  in  Sweden. 
Knt.  or  Kt.— Knight. 
K.  P.— Knight  of  St.  Patrick. 
K.R.C.— Knight  of  the  Red  Cross. 
K.  R.  E.— Knight  of  the  Red  Eagle,  in 

Prussia. 
K.  S. — Knight  of  the  Sword,  in  Sweden. 
K.S.  A. — Knight  of  St.  Anne  of  Russia. 
K.  S.  E.— Knight  of  St.  Esprit,  in  France. 
K.S.F.  — Knight   of    St.  Fernando    of 

Spain. 
K.  S.  F.  M.— Knight  of  St.  Ferdinand  and 

Merit,  in  Naples. 
K.  S.  G.— Knight  of  St.  George  of  Russia. 
K.S.H.  — Knight  of  St.  Hubert  of  Ba- 
varia. 
K.S.J. — Knight  of    St.  Januarius   of 

Naples. 
K.S.L. — Knight  of  the  Sun  and  Lion, 

in  Persia. 
K.S.M.  &  S.G.— Knight  of  St.  Michael 
and  St.  George  of  the  Ionian  Islands. 
K.S. P.  — Knight  of   St.  Stanislaus    of 

Poland. 
K.S.S.— Knight  of  the   Southern  Star 

of  the  Brazils. 
K.S.S.— Knight -of  the  Sword,  in  Swe- 
den. 
K.S.W.— Knight  of  St.  Wladimir    of 


K.T.— Knight  of  the  Thistle;    Knight 

Templar. 
Kt.— Knight. 


ABBBEVIA  TIONS. 


805 


K.  T.  S.— Knight  of  the  Tower  and  Sword, 

in  Portugal. 
K.  W.— Knight  of  William  of  the  Nether- 
lands. 
K.W.E.— Knight  of  the  White  Eagle, 

in  Poland. 
Ky. — Kentucky. 
L.— Fifty  or  fiftieth. 
L. — Liber,  book. 
L,  £,  or  1. — Libra  or  librse,  pound  or 

pounds  sterling. 
L.  or  £,  s.  d. — Pounds,  shillings,  pence. 
La. — Louisiana. 
Lam, — Lamentations. 
Lat. — Latitude ;  Latin. 
Lb.   or  ft). — Libra  or  librse,  pound  or 

pounds  in  weight. 
L.C. — Lord  Chancellor;  Lord  Chamber- 
lain. 
L.  C, — Lower  Canada. 
Liv. — Livre,  book. 
1.0. — Lowercase. 
L.C.  J.— Lord  Chief-Justice. 
L.D.— Lady-Day. 
Ld. — Lord. 
Ldp. — Lordship. 
Leg. — Legate. 
Legis.^-Legislature. 
Lev. — Leviticus. 
Lex. — Lexicon. 
L.  I. — Long  Island. 
Lib. — Liber,  book. 
Lieut. — Lieutenant. 
Lieut.-Col. — Lieutenant-Colonel. 
Lieut.-Gen. — Lieutenaut-General. 
Lieut.-Gov. — Lieutenant-Governor. 
Linn. — Linnaean. 
Lit. — Literally ;  Literature. 
LL.B. — Legum  Baccalaureus,  Bachelor 

of  Laws. 
LL.  D. — Legum  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Laws. 
1.1. — Loco  laudato,  in  the  place  quoted, 
loc.  cit. — Loco  citato,  in  the  place  cited. 
Lon. — Longitude. 

L.  S. — Locus  sigilli,  place  of  the  seal. 
Lt. — Lieutenant. 
LX. — Sixty  or  sixtieth. 
LXX. — Seventy  or  seventieth. 
LXX.— The  Septuagint  (Version  of  the 

Old  Testament). 
LXXX.— Eighty  or  eightieth. 
M. — Meridies,  noon. 
M. — Mille,  a  thousand. 
M.  or  Mons. — Monsieur. 


M.  A. — Master  of  Arts. 

Mace. — Maccabees. 

Mad — Madam. 

Mad.  Univ.— Madison  University. 

Maj. — Major. 

Maj  .-Gen. — Maj  or-General. 

Mai. — Malachi. 

Man. — Manasses. 

Mar.— March. 

March. — Marchioness. 

M  arg. — Margi  n . 

Marg.  Tran. — Marginal  Translation. 

Marq. — Marquis. 

Masc. — Masculine. 

Mass. — Massachusetts. 

Math. — Mathematics ;  Mathematician. 

Matt.— Matthew. 

Max. — Maxim. 

M.  B. — Medicinie  Baccalaureus,  Bachelor 

of  Medicine. 
M.B. — Musicse  Baccalaureus,  Bachelor 

of  Music. 
M.B.F.  etH. — Great    Britain,    France, 

and  Ireland. 
M.C. — Member  of  Congress. 
Mch. — March. 

M.  D. — Medicinse  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Medi- 
cine. 
Md. — Maryland. 
Mdlle. — Mademoiselle. 
M.E.  —  Methodist   Episcopal;    Military 

or  Mechanical  Engineer. 
Me. — Maine. 
Med. — Medicine. 
Mem. — Memorandum. 
Mem. — Memento,  remember. 
Merc. — Mercury. 

Messrs.  or  MM. — Messieurs,  Gentlemen. 
Met. — Metaphysics. 
Metal. — Metallurgy. 
Meteor. — Meteorology. 
Meth . — Methodist. 
Mex. — Mexico  or  Mexican. 
M.-Goth. — Moeso-Gothic. 
M.  H.  S. — Massachusetts   Historical    So- 
ciety. 
M.  H.  S. — Member  of  the  Historical  So 

ciety. 
Mic. — Micah. 
Mich. — Michigan. 
Mil.— Military. 
Min. — Mineralogy. 
Min. — Minute. 
Minn. — Minnesota. 


26* 


306 


ABBBEVIA  TIONS, 


Min.  Plen. — Minister  Plenipotentiary. 
Miss. — Mississippi. 

M.  L.  A.  —  Mercantile  -  Library   Associa- 
tion. 
MM. — Their  Majesties- 
MM. — Messieurs,  Gentlemen. 
MM. — Two  thousand. 
Mme. — Madame. 

M.  M.  S. — Moravian  Missionary  Society. 
M.  M.  S.  S. — Massachusettensis  Medicinse 
Societatis  Socius,  Fellow  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Medical  Society. 
Mo. — Missouri;  Month. 
Mod. — Mpdern. 
Mon. — Monday. 
Mons. — Monsieur,  Sir. 
Mos. — Months. 
M.  P. — Member  of  Parliament ;  Member 

of  Police. 
M.P.P. — Member  of  Provincial  Parlia- 
ment. 
M.R.— Master  of  the  Rolls. 
Mr. — Mister. 

M.  R.  A.  S. — Member  of  the  Royal  Asiatic 
Society;   Member  of  the  Royal  Aca- 
demy of  Science. 
M.R. CO.— Member  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Chemistry. 
M.R.C.S.— Member  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Surgeons. 
M.R.G.S.— Member  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society. 
M.R.I. — Member  of  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion. 
M.R. I.  A.— Member  of  the  Royal  Irish 

Academy. 
Mrs. — Mistress. 

M.  R.  S.  L.— Member  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety of  Literature. 
M.S. — Memorise  sacrum,  Sacred  to  the 

memory. 
M.  S. — Master  of  the  Sciences. 
MS. — Manuscriptum,  manuscript. 
MSS. — Manuscripts. 
Mt. — Mount  or  mountain. 
Mus.  B. — Bachelor  of  Music. 
Mus.  D. — Doctor  of  Music. 
M.  W.— Most  Worthy ;  Most  Worshipful. 
Myth. — Mythology. 

N. — North;  Number;  Noun;  Neuter.      | 
n. — Note.  I 

N.A. — North  America. 
Nah. — Nahum.  i 

Nat. — Natural.  I 


Nat.  Hist. — Natural  History. 

Nath. — Nathanael  or  Nathaniel. 

N.B. — New  Brunswick;  North  British. 

N.  B. — Nota  bene,  mark  well ;  take  notice. 

N.C.— North  Carolina. 

N.E.— New  England;  Northeast. 

Neb. — Nebraska. 

Neh. — Nehemiah. 

n.e.i. — Non   est   inventus,  he   is    not 

found, 
nem.  con.  or  nem.  diss. — Nemine  ccmtra- 

dicente,  or  nemine  dissentiente,  no  one 

opposing;  Unanimously. 
Neut. — Neuter  (gender). 
New  M. — New  Mexico. 
New  Test,  or  N.T. — New  Testament. 
N.  F. — Newfoundland. 
N.  G. — New  Gi'anada ;  Noble  Grand. 
N. H. — New  Hampshire;  New  Haven. 
N.H.H.S. — New  Hampshire  Historical 

Society. 
Ni.  pri. — Nisi  prius. 
N.J. — New  Jersey. 
n.l. — Non  liquet,  it  does  not  appear. 
N.  lat. — North  latitude. 
N.M. — New  Mexico. 
N.  N.  E.— North-northeast. 
N.  N.  W. — North-northwest. 
N.O. — New  Orleans. 
No. — Numero,  number. 
Nol  pros. — Nolle  prosequi,  unwilling  to 

proceed. 
Nom.  or  nom. — Nominative. 
Non    con. — Not    content;     dissenting 

(House  of  Lords). 
Non  cul. — Nrni  culpabilis,  Not  guilty. 
Non  obst. — Non  obstante,  notwithstand- 
ing. 
Non   pros. — Non  prosequitur,  he  does 

not  prosecute. 
Non  seq. — Non   sequitur,  it  does  not 

follow. 
Nos. — Numbers. 
Nov. — November. 
N.P. — Notary  Public. 
N.S.— New    Style  (after  1752);    Nova 

Scotia. 
N.T. — New  Testament;    Nevada  Terri- 
tory. 
N.u. — Name  or  names  unknown. 
Num. — Numbers;  Numeral. 
N.  V.M. — Nativity  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 
N.  W. — Northwest. 
N.Y.— New  York. 


ABBBEVIA  TIONS, 


307 


N.Y.H.S.— New    York  Historical  So- 
ciety. 

0.— Ohio. 

Ob. — Ohiit,  he  or  she  died. 

Obad. — Obadiah. 

Obs. — Obsolete;  Observatory;  Observa- 
tion. 

Obt.  or  obdt. — Obedient. 

Oct. — October. 

O.  F.— Odd-Fellow  or  Odd-Fellows. 

Old  Test,  or  O.T.— Old  Testament. 

Olym . — Olympiad. 

Opt. — Optics. 

Or. — Oregon. 

Orig. — Originally. 

Or  ni  th . — Or  ni  thology . 

0.  S.— Old  Style  (before  1752). 

O.T.— Oregon    Territory;    Old    Testa- 
ment. 

O.U.  A. — Order  of  United  Americans. 

Oxf;— Oxford. 

Oxon. — Oxonia,  Oxonii,  Oxford. 

Oz. — Ounce. 

P. — Pondere,  by  weight. 
P.  or  p. — Page ;  Part ;  Participle. 
Pa.  or  Penn. — Pennsylvania. 
Pal. — Palaeontology. 
Par. — Paragraph. 
Par.  Pas. — Parallel  passage. 
Pari. — Parliament. 
Pathol . — Pathology. 
Payt. — Payment. 
Pb. — Plumbum,  lead. 
P.  B. — Philosophise  Baccalaureus,  Bache- 
lor of  Philosophy. 
P.O. — Patres   Conscriptiy  Conscript  Fa- 
thers; Senators. 
P.  C. — Privy  Council ;  Privy  Councillor. 
P.D.  —  Philosophife    Doctor,  Doctor  of 

Philosophy. 
Pd.— Paid. 

P.E. — Protestant  Episcopal. 
P.E.I. — Princ^Idward  Island. 
Penn. — Pennsylvania. 
Pent. — Pentecost. 
Per,  or  pr. — By  the,  or  per  lb. 
Per  an. — Per  annum,  by  the  year. 
Per  cent. — Per  centum,  by  the  hundred. 
Peri. — Perigee. 
Pet.— Peter. 
P.G.— Past  Grand. 
Phar. — Pharmacy. 

Ph.  B. — Philosophise  Baccalaureus,  Ba- 
chelor of  Philosophy. 


Ph.  D. — Philosophise  Doctor^  Doctor  of 

Philosophy. 
Phil. — Philip;  Philippians;  Philosophy; 

Philemon. 
Phila.  or  Phil.— Philadelphia. 
Philem. — Philemon. 
Philom. — Philomathes,  a  lover  of  learn- 
ing. 
Philomath. — Philomathematicus,  a  lover 

of  the  mathematics. 
Phil.  Trans.  —  Philosophical     Transac- 
tions. 
Phren. — Phrenology.  - 
P.  H.  S . — Pennsylvania    Historical    So- 
ciety. 
Pinx.    or    pxt. — Pinxit,   he    (or    she) 

painted  it. 
PI.  or  Plur.— Plural. 
Plflf.— Plaintiff. 

P.M. — Post  meridiem,  afternoon,  even- 
ing. 
P.M.  —  Postmaster;     Passed    Midship- 
man. 
P.M.G. — Postmaster-General ;  Professor 

of  Music  in  Gresham  College. 
P.O.— Post-Office. 
Poet. — Poetical. 
Pop. — Population. 
Port. — Portugal  or  Portuguese. 
P.P. — Pater  Patrice,  the  father  of  his 

country. 
P.P.C. — Pour  prendre  conge,  to    take 

leave. 
Pp.  or  pp. — Pages. 
Pph. — Pamphlet. 
P.R. — Populus  Romanus,    the    Roman 

people. 
P.R. A. — President  of  the   Roj'al   Aca- 
demy. 
P.  R,  C. — Post  Romanum  conditum,  from 

the  building  of  Rome. 
Pref. — Preface. 
Prep. — Preposition. 
Pres. — President. 
Prin. — Principally. 
Prob. — Problem. 
Prof. — Professor. 
Pron. — Pronoun ;  Pronunciation. 
Prop. — Proposition. 
Prot. — Protestant. 
Pro  tem, — Pro   tempore,  for  the  time 

being. 
Prov. — Proverbs ;  Provost, 
prox. — Proximo,  next  (month). 


308 


ABBREVIA  TIONS. 


P.  R.  S.— President  of  the  Royal  Society. 

P.  S. — Post  scriptum,  Postscript. 

P.  S.— Privy  Seal. 

Ps. — Psalm  or  Psalms. 

Pt.  — Part;    Pint;     Payment;    Point; 

Port. 
P.  t. — Post-town. 
P.  Th.  G.— Professor    of  Theology    in 

Gresham  College. 
Pub.  —  Publisher;    Publication;     Pub- 
lished; Public. 
Pub.  Doc. — Public  Documents. 
P.  V. — Post-village. 
Pwt. — Pennyweight ;  pennyweights. 
Pxt. — Pinxit,  he  (or  she)  painted  it. 
Q. — Queen. 
Q. — Question. 

q. — Quasi,  as  it  were;  almost. 
Q.  B. — Queen's  Bench. 
Q.C. — Queen's  College. 
Q.C. — Queen's  Counsel, 
q.d. — Quasi  dicat,  as  if  he  should  say; 

quasi  dictum,  as  if  said;    quasi  dix- 

isset,  as  if  he  had  said, 
q.e. — Quod  est,  which  is. 
q.  e.  d. — Quod  erat  demonstrandum,  which 

was  to  be  proved. 
q.e.f.—Quod  erat  faciendum,  which  was 

to  be  done. 
q.e.i. — Quod  erat  inveniendum,   which 

was  to  be  found  out. 
q.l. — Quantum  libet,  as  much  as  you 

please. 
Q.  M. — Quartermaster, 
qm. — Quomodo,  how;  by  what  means. 
Q.  M.  G. — Quartermaster-General, 
q.p.  or  q.pl. — Quantum  placet,  as  much 

as  you  please. 
Qr. — Quarter. 
Q.  S. — Quarter  Sessions. 
q.s.—Quantu7n  sufficit,  bl  sufficient  qiian- 

tity. 
Qt.— Quart. 

qu.  or  qy. — Qusere,  inquire;  query. 
Quar. — Quarterly. 
Ques. — Question, 
q.v. — Quod  vide,  which   see;  quantum 

vis,  as  much  as  you  will. 
1^. — Recipe,  take. 
R. — Regina,  Queen ;  Rex,  King. 
R.— River;  Rood;  Rod. 
R. A.— Royal    Academy;    Royal  Acade- 
mician. 
R,  A. — Royal  Arch. 


R.A. — Royal  Artillery. 

RC. — Rescriptum,  a  counterpart. 

R.E. — Royal  Engineers. 

Rec. — Recipe  or  Recorder. 

Reed. — Received. 

Rec.  Sec. — Recording  Secretary. 

Rect, — Rector ;  Receipt. 

Ref. — Reference. 

Ref.  Ch. — Reformed  Church. 

Reg. — Register ;  Regular. 

Reg.  Prof. — Regius  Professor. 

Regr. — Registrar. 

Regt. — Regiment. 

Rel. — Religion. 

Rep. — Representative ;  Reporter. 

Rev. — Reverend ;  Revelation  (Book  of) ; 
Review;  Revenue;  Revise. 

Rhet. — Rhetoric. 

R.  I.— Rhode  Island. 

Richd. — Richard. 

R.  I.  H.  S.— Rhode  Island  Historical  So- 
ciety. 

R.  M. — Royal  Marines ;  Royal  Mail. 

R.  M.  S.— Royal  Mail  Steamer. 

R.N. — Royal  Navy. 

R.N.  0. — Riddare  af Nor  dstj  erne.  Knight 
of  the  Order  of  the  Polar  Star. 

Ro. — Recto,  right-hand  page. 

Robt. — Robert. 

Rom. — Romans  (Book  of). 

Rom.  Cath. — Roman  Catholic. 

R.  P. — Regius  Professor,  the  King's  Pro- 
fessor. 

R.R. — Railroad. 

R.  S. — Recording  Secretary. 

Rs. — Responsus,  to  answer. 

R.  S.  A. — Royal  Society  of  Antiquaries ; 
Royal  Scottish  Academy. 

R.S.b.— Royal  Society  of  Dublin. 

R.  S.  E.— Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh. 

R.S.L. — Royal  Society  of  London. 

^.^.^.—Regise  Societatis  Socius,  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society. 

Rt.  Hon. — Right  Honourable. 

Rt.  Rev.— Right  Reverend. 

Rt.  Wpful.— Right  Worshipful. 

R.W.— Right  Worthy. 

'R.^Y.O.  — Riddare  af  Wasa  Orden, 
Knight  of  the  Order  of  Wasa. 

S.  — South;  Saint;  Scribe;  Sulphur; 
Sunday;  Sun;  Series. 

S. — Solidus,  a  shilling. 

S.A. — South  America:  South  Africa; 
South  Australia, 


ABBREVJA  TIONS, 


309 


s.  a. — Secundum  artem,  according  to  art. 

Sam. — Samuel. 

Sansc. — Sanscrit. 

S.  A.  S. — Societatis  Antiquariorum  So- 
cius,  Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Anti- 
quarians. 

Sat. — Saturday. 

Sax. — Saxon. 

Sax.  Chron. — Saxon  Chronicle. 

S.  C. — Senatus  Cmisultum,  a  decree  of  the 
Senate ;  South  Carolina. 

Sc. — Sculpsit,  he  (or  she)  engraved  it. 

sc.  or  scil. — Scilicet,  namely. 

Scan.  Mag. — Scandalum  magnatum, 
great  scandal. 

S.  caps. — Small  capitals. 

Schol. — Scholium,  a  note. 

Schr. — Schooner. 

Sci.  fa. — Scire  facias. 

Sclav. — Sclavonic. 

Sculp,  or  sculp. — Sculpsit,  he  (or  she) 
engraved  it. 

S.D. — Salutem  dicit,  sends  health. 

S.E.— Southeast. 

Sec. — Secretary ;  Second. 

Sec.  Leg. — Secretary  of  Legation. 

Sec.  leg. — Secundum  legem,  according  to 
law. 

Sec.  reg. — Secundum  regulam,  according 
to  rule. 

Sect. — Section. 

Sem. — Semhle,  it  seems. 

Sen. — Senate;  Senator;  Senior. 

Sept. — September ;  Septuagint. 

Seq. — Sequentia,  following;  sequitur,  it 
follows. 

Ser. — Series. 

Serg. — Sergeant. 

Serg.-Maj. — Sergeant-Major. 

Servt. — Servant. 

S.G. — South  Georgia;  Solicitor-General. 

Shak. — Shakspeare. 

S.H.S. — Societatis  Historise  Sodus,  Fel- 
low of  the  Historical  Society. 

Sing.— Singular. 

S.  Isl. — Sandwich  Islands. 

S.J. — Society  of  Jesus. 

S.  J.C. — Supreme  Judicial  Court. 

Skr. — Sanscrit. 

S.  L. — Solicitor  at  Law  (Scot.). 

S.  lat.— South  latitude. 

S,  M.— State  Militia ;  Short  Metre ;  Ser- 
geant-Major; Sons  of  Malta. 

S.M.  Lond,  Soc.  Cor.—Sociefafis  Medicse 


Londonensis  Socius  Cor.,  Correspond- 
ing Member  of  the  London  Medical 
Society. 

s.n. — Secundum  naturam,  according  to 
nature. 

Soc.  Isl. — Society  Islands. 

Sol. — Solomon;  Solution. 

Sol.-Gen. — Solicitor-General. 

S.  of  Sol. — Song  of  Solomon. 

S.  P. — Sine  prole,  without  issue. 

S.P.  A.S. — Societatis  Philosophicse  Ame- 
ricanx,  Socius,  Member  of  the  Ameri- 
can Philosophical  Society. 

S.  P.  G. — Society  for  the  Propagation  of 
the  Gospel. 

Sp.  gr. — Specific  gravity. 

S.  P.  Q.  'R,.— Senatus  Populusque  Eomani, 
the  Senate  and  people  of  Rome. 

Sq.  ft. — Square  foot  or  square  feet. 

Sq.  in. — Square  inch  or  inches. 

Sq.  m. — Square  mile  or  miles. 

Sq.  r. — Square  rood  or  roods. 

Sq.  yd. — Square  yard. 

Sr. — Sir;  Senior. 

S.R.I. — Sacrum  Romanum  Imperium, 
Holy  Roman  Empire. 

S.  R.  S. — Societatis  Jtegise  Socius,  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society. 

S.  S. — Sunday-school. 

SS.— Saints. 

SS.  or  SS. — Scilicet,  to  wit. 

SS. — Semis,  half. 

S.S.C. — Solicitor  before  the  Supreme 
Court  (Scotland). 

S.  S.  E.— South-southeast. 

S.  S.  W.— South-southwest. 

St. — Saint;  Street;  Strait. 

Stat.— Statute. 

S.  T.  B.—Sacrse  Theologise  Doctor,  Doctor 
of  Divinity. 

Ster.  or  Stg.— Sterling. 

S.  T.  P. — Sacrse  Theologise  Professor,  Pro- 
fessor of  Divinity. 

Su. — Sunday. 

Subj . — Subj  unctive. 

Subst. — Substantive. 

Su.-Goth.— Suio-Gothic. 

Sun.  or  Sund. — Sunday. 

Sup. — Supplement ;  Superfine. 

Supt. — Superintendent. 

Surg. — Surgeon ;  Surgery. 

Surg.-Gen. — Surgeon-General. 

Surv. — Surveyor. 

Surv.-Gen.— Surveyor-General. 


310 


ABBBEVIA  TIONS, 


Sus. — Susannah. 

s.v. — Sub  verbo,  under  the  word  or  title. 

S.W.— Southwest. 

Syn. — Synonym ;  Synonymous. 

T.— Territory. 

T.—Tutti,  all  together. 

T.  or  tom. — Tome,  volume. 

Ta. — Tantalum  (Columbium). 

T.  E. — Topographical  Engineers. 

Tenn. — Tennessee. 

Ter. — Territory. 

Tex. — Texas. 

Text.  liec. —  Textus  Receptus,  the  Re- 
ceived Text. 

Th.  or  Thurs. — Thursday. 

Theo. — Theodore. 

TheoL— Theology ;  Theological. 

Theoph.— Theophilus. 

Thess. — Thessalonians. 

Tho' .—Though. 

Thos. — Thomas. 

Thro'.— Through. 

Tim.— Timothy. 

Tit.— Titus. 

T.O. — Turn  over. 

Tob.— Tobit. 

Tom. — Volume. 

Topog.— Topography ;  Topographical. 

Tr.— Transpose;    Translator;   Transla- 
tion. 

Tr. — Trustee.    Trs. — Trustees. 

tr. — Trillo,  a  shake. 

Trans.— Translator;  Translation;  Trans- 
actions. 

Treas. — Treasurer. 

Trin.— Trinity. 

Tues.  or  Tu. — Tuesday. 

Typ. — Typographer. 

U.  C. — Upper  Canada. 

U.C. —  Urbe  condita,  year  of  Rome. 

U.E. I.e.— United  East  India  Company. 

U.  G.  R.  R.— Underground  Railway. 

U.J.C. —  Utriusque  Juris  Doctor,  Doctor 

of  both  Laws. 
U.K. — United  Kingdom. 

ult— Ultimo,  last;  of  the  last  month. 

Unit. — Unitarian. 

Univ. — University. 

U.  S.— United  States. 

U.S. —  TTt  supra  or  uti  supra,  as  above. 

U.  S.  A, — United  States  Array. 

U.  S.  A. — United  States  of  America. 

U.S.M.— United  States  Mail. 

U.  S.  M. — United  States  Marines. 


U.  S.  M.  A. — United  States  Military  Aca- 
den;iy. 

U.S.N.— United  States  Navy. 

U.S.N. A.  — United  States  Naval  Aca- 
demy. 

U.S.S. — United  States  Senate. 

U.T.— Utah  Territory. 

v.— Five  or  fifth. 

v.— Violin.    VV.— Violins. 

V.  or  vid. —  Vide,  see. 

V.  or  vs. —  Versus,  against;  Versiculo,  in 
such  a  verse. 

Va. — Virginia. 

Vat. — Vatican. 

V.  C. — Vice-Chancellor. 

V.D.M. —  Verbi  Dei  Minister,  Minister 
of  God's  Word. 

Veru — Venerable. 

Ver. — Verse. 

V.  G. — Vicar-General. 

v.g. —  Verbi  gratidf  as  for  example. 

VI. — Six  or  sixth, 

VII. — Seven  or  seventh. 

VIII.— Eight  or  eighth. 

Vice-Pres.  or  V.  P. — Vice-President. 

Vise. — Viscount. 

viz.  or  vl. —  Videlicet,  to  wit;  namely; 
that  is  to  say. 

Vo. —  Verso,  left-hand  page. 

Vol. — Volume. 

V.R. —  Victoria  Regina,  Queen  Victoria. 

Vt. — Vermont. 

Vul. — Vulgate  (Version). 

W.— West. 

Wash. — Washington. 

Wed. — Wednesday. 

West.  Res.  Coll.— Western  Reserve  Col- 
lege. 

w.f. — Wrong  fount. 

Whf.— Wharf. 

W.I.— West  India. 

Wise. — Wisconsin. 

Wisd.— Wisdom  (Book  of). 

Wk.— Week. 

W.  Ion. — West  longitude. 

W.  M. — Worshipful  Master. 

Wm. — William. 

W.M.S.— Wesleyan  Missionary  Society. 

W.  N.  W.— West-northwest. 

Wpful.— Worshipful. 

W.  S.— Writer  to  the  Signet. 

W.  S.W.— West-southwest. 

W.  T.— Washington  Territory. 

Wt.— Weight. 


ABBREVIA  TIONS. 


311 


W.Va.— West  Virginia. 

X.— Ten  or  tenth. 

XI.— Eleven. 

XII.— Twelve. 

XIII.— Thirteen. 

XIV.— Fourteen. 

XV.— Fifteen. 

XVI.— Sixteen. 

XVII.— Seventeen. 

XVIII.— Eighteen. 

XIX. — Nineteen. 

XX.— Twenty. 

XXX.— Thirty. 

XL.— Forty. 

XC— Ninety. 

X.  or  Xt.— Christ. 

Xmas  or  Xm. — Christmas. 

Xn.  or  Xtian. — Christian. 


Xnty.  or  Xty.— Christianity. 
Xper  or  Xr.    Christopher. 
Yd.— Yard. 
y.  or  ye — The. 
ym — Them. 
yn — Then, 
yr  — Their ;  Your. 
ys.  —This. 
yt.  —That. 

Y.M.C.A. — Young  Men's  Christian  As- 
sociation. 
Yrs. — Years;  Yours. 
Zach. — Zachary. 
Zech. — Zechariah. 
Zeph. — Zephaniah. 
Zool.— Zoology. 
&.— And. 


BRONSTRUP    PRESS. 


PBI 

MMMMMm^M 

^ 

^ 

i 

^^ 

m 

^ 

M 

M 

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1 

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1 

^ 

FOREIGN  "WORDS  AND  PHRASES, 

WITH  TRANSLATIONS. 


A  has. — ^Down  with. 

A  capite  ad  calcem. — From  head  to  foot. 

A  Jin. — To  the  end. 

A  fortiori. — With  stronger  reason. 

A  Vahandon. — At  random. 

A  la  honne  heure. — Luckily;  in  good 

time. 
A  la  derohie. — By  stealth. 
A  la  mode. — According  to  the  fashion. 
A  main  armee. — With  force  of  arms. 
A  mensa  et  thoro. — From  bed  and  board. 
A  posteriori. — From   effect  to   cause; 

from  the  latter. 
A  priori. — From  cause  to  effect;  from 

the  former. 
A  vinculo  matrimonii. — From  the  tie  of 

marriage. 
A  votre  sante. — To  your  health. 
Ah  extra. — From  without. 
Ah  initio. — From  the  beginning. 
Ah  origine. — From  the  beginning. 
Ah  ovo. — From  the  beginning. 
Ah  urhe  conditd. — From  the  building  of 

the  city  (Rome) ;  abridged  A.  U.  C. 
Ahsit  invidi-a. — All  offence  apart;  let 

there  be  no  malice. 
Ahsit  omen^ — May  it  not  prove  ominous. 
Ac  etiam. — And  also. 
Actum  est  de  republica. — It  is  all  over 

with  the  commonwealth. 
Ad  ahsurdum. — To  show  the  absurdity. 
Ad  arhitrium. — At  pleasure. 
Ad   astra  per   aspera. — To   the   stars 

through  dilficulties. 
Ad  captandum  vulgus. — To  catch  the 

mob  or  the  vulgar. 
312 


Ad  eundem. — To  the  same  point  or  de- 
gree. 

Adjinem. — To  the  end. 

Ad  Grsecas  Calendas. — An  indefinite 
postponement.  (The  Greeks  had  no 
calends.) 

Ad  hominem. — To  the  man  (that  is,  to 
the  interests  or  the  passions  of  the 
man). 

Ad  infinitum. — Without  end. 

Ad  inquirendum. — For  inquiry. 

Ad  interim. — In  the  mean  while. 

Ad  lihitum.- — At  pleasure. 

Ad  litem. — For  the  action  (at  law). 

Ad  nauseam. — To  a  disgusting  degree. 

Ad  referendum. — For  further  considera- 
tion. 

Ad  rem. — To  the  purpose. 

Ad  unguem. — To  the  nail;  exactly; 
nicely. 

Ad  valorem. — According  to  the  value. 

Addendum. — An  addition  or  appendix. 

Adhuc  suh  judice  lis  est. — The  affair  is 
not  yet  decided. 

JEgrescit  medendo. — The  remedy  is  worse 
than  the  disease. 

JEquam  servare  mentem. — To  preserve 
an  equable  mind. 

JEquo  animo. — ^With  an  equable  mind. 

^re  perennius. — More  lasting  than 
brass ;  enduring  ever. 

Affaire  du  coeur. — A  love-affair;  an 
amour. 

Afflatus. — Inspiration. 

Agenda. — Things  to  be  done. 

Aide-de-camp. — Assistant  to  a  general. 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES, 


313 


Aide-toi,  et  le  del  f  aider  a. — Help  thy- 
self, and  Heaven  will  help  thee. 

Aleve  Jiammam. — To  feed  the  flame 

Alfresco. — In  the  open  air. 

Alga. — A  kind  of  sea-weed. 

Alguazil. — A  Spanish  constable. 

Alias. — Otherwise ;  elsewhere. 

Alibi. — Elsewhere ;  not  present. 

Alis  volat  propriis. — She  flies  with  her 
own  wings. 

Aliunde. — From  some  other  qxiarter  or 
person. 

Allemande. — A  kind  of  German  dance. 

Alma  mater. — Benign  mother  (applied 
to  a  university). 

Alter  ego. — A  second  self. 

Amende. — Compensation ;  apology. 

Ami  dupeupU. — Friend  of  the  people. 

Amicus  curise. — A  friend  of  the  court. 

Amor patrise. — Love  of  country. 

Amour  propre. — Self-love ;  vanity. 

Ancien  regime. — Former  administration ; 
ancient  order  of  things. 

Anglice. — In  English. 

Anguis  in  herbd.—A  snake  in  the  gi'ass. 

Animis  opibusque  parati. — Ever  ready 
with  our  lives  and  property. 

Animo  et  Jide. — By  (or  with)  courage 
and  faith. 

Animo  facto. — Really  and  truly. 

Animus  fur  andi. — Felonious  intent. 

Anno  Domini. — In  the  year  of  our  Lord. 

Anno  lucis. — In  the  year  of  light. 

Anno  mundi. — In  the  year  of  the  world. 

Annus  mirabilis. — Year  of  wonders. 

Ante  bellum. — Before  the  war. 

Ante  Jucem. — Before  light. 

Ante  meridiem. — Before  noon. 

Aperfu.  —  A  brief  sketch  of  any  sub- 
ject. 

Apropos  (Fr.  d  propos). — To  the  pur- 
pose. 

Aqua  vitse. — ^Water  of  life ;  brandy. 

Arbiter  elegantiarum. — Master  of  cere- 
monies; an  umpire  in  matters  of 
taste. 

Arcana  imperii. — State  secrets. 

Arcanum. — A  secret. 

Argumentum  ad  wumenam. — An  argu- 
ment to  the  purse. 

Argumentum  ad  fidem. — An  appeal  to 
faith. 

Argumsntum  ad  hominem.  —  An  argu- 
ment to  the  person-. 


Argumentum  ad  ignorantiam. — An  argu- 
ment founded  on  an  adversary's  igno- 
rance of  facts. 

Argumentum  ad  judicium. — An  appeal 
to  the  common  sense  of  mankind. 

Argumentum  ad  populum. — An  appeal 
to  the  people. 

Argumentum  ad  verecundiam.-r— An  argu- 
ment to  modesty. 

Argumentum  baculinum. — Club  law. 

Armiger.  —  One  bearing  arms;  an 
esquire. 

Arriere-pensee. — Mental  reservation. 

Ars  est  celare  artem. — True  art  is  to  con- 
ceal art. 

Assumpsit. — It  is  assumed  or  taken  for 
granted. 

Astra  castra,  Nwnen  lumen. — The  stars 
my  camp,  the  Deity  my  light. 

At  spes  n&n  fracta. — But  hope  is  not 
broken. 

Aufait. — Well  instructed;  master  of  it. 

Au  fond.  —  To  the  bottom,  or  main 
point. 

Aupied  de  la  lettre. — Literally. 

Aupis  alter. — At  the  worst. 

Au  revoir. — Farewell. 

Audi  alteram  partem. — Hear  the  other 
side. 

Aura  popularis. — The  gale  of  popular 
favour. 

Atiri  sacra  fames. — The  accursed  thirst 
for  gold. 

Aut  vincere  aut  mxtri. — Victory  or  death. 

Auto-dafe^  Auto-deft. — An  act  of  faith ; 
burning  of  heretics. 

Auxilium  ah  alto. — Help  from  on  high. 

Avant-coureur. — A  forerunner. 

Badinage. — Light  or  playful  discourse. 

Bagatelle. — A  trifle. 

Bas  bleu. — A  blue-stocking;  a  literary 
woman. 

Bateau. — A  long  light  boat. 

Beaurideal. — A  model  of  ideal  perfec- 
tion. 

Beau  monde. — The  fashionable  world. 

Bel  esprit. — A  brilliant  mind. 

Bella-donna. — The  deadly  nightshade; 
fair  lady. 

Belles-lettres. — Polite  literature. 

Bellum  intemecinum. — A  war  of  exter- 
mination, 

Bellum  hthale. — A  deadly  war. 


27 


314 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


Benigno  numine. — By  the  favour  of  Pro- 
vidence. 

Ben  trovaio. — Well  found ;  an  ingenious 
solution. 

Billet-doux. — A  love-letter. 

Bis  dat  qzd  cito  dat. — He  gives  twice 
w^ho  gives  promptly. 

Bis  peccare  in  hello  nan  licet. — To  blun- 
der twice  is  not  allowed  in  war. 

Bis  vincit,  qui  se  vincit  in  victorid. — He 
conquers  a  second  time,  who  controls 
himself  in  victory. 

Bizarre. — Odd;  fantastic. 

Blase. — Surfeited. 

Bon  grS  mal  gre. — Willing  or  unwilling. 

Bon  jour. — Good-day ;  good-morning. 

Bo^i  mot. — A  witty  saying;  a  jest;  a 
qiiibble. 

Bon  soir. — Good-evening. 

Bon  ton. — High  fashion;  first-class  so- 
ciety. 

Bon  vivant. — A  high  liver. 

Bona  fide. — In  good  faith. 

Bon-bon. — A  sweetmeat ;  confectionery. 

Bonhomie. — Good-natured  simplicity.    . 

Bonis  nocet  quisquis  pepercerit  malis. — 
He  hurts  the  good  who  spares  the  bad. 

Bonne  houche. — A  delicious  morsel. 

Bonus. — An  extra  payment  for  a  service 
rendered  or  a  thing  received. 

Boreas. — The  north  wind. 

Boudoir. — A  small  private  apartment. 

Bourgeois. — A  citizen  of  the  trading 
class ;  a  printing  type. 

Bourgeoisie. — The  body  of  citizens. 

Bravura. — A  song  of  difficult  execution. 

Brevete. — Patented. 

Brutum  fulmen. — A  harmless  thunder- 
bolt ;  unreasoning  bluster. 

Burletta. — A  musical  farce 

Cachet. — A  seal. 

Cacoethes. — A  bad  habit  or  custom. 

Cacoethes  carpendi. — A  rage  for  finding 
fault. 

Cacoethes  loquendi. — An  itch  for  speak- 
ing. 

Cacoethes  scrihendi  —  A  passion  for 
writing. 

Cadenza. — The  fall  or  modulation  of  the 
voice,  in  music. 

Cfeca  est  invidia. — Envy  is  blind. 

Csetera  desunt.-'~The  remainder  is  want- 
ing. 


Ceteris  paribus. — Other    things    being 

equal. 
Calibre. — Capacity  or  compass;  mental 

power ;  a  term  in  gunnery. 
Camera  obscura. — A  dark  chamber  used 

by  artists. 
Campus  Martins. — The  field  of  Mars; 

a  place  of  military  exercise. 
Canaille. — The  rabble. 
Candida  Pax. — White-robed  Peace. 
Cantata. — A  poem  set  to  music. 
Cantate  Domino. — Sing  to  the  Lord. 
Gap-drpie. — From  head  to  foot. 
Capias  ad  satisfaciendum.  —  You  may 

take  to  satisfy. 
Capriccio. — A  fanciful  irregular  kind  of 

musical  composition. 
Capriole. — A  leap  without  advancing; 

capers. 
CapiU  mortuum. — Dead  head ;  the  worth- 
less remains. 
Caret. — Is  wanting  or  omitted. 
Caret  initio  et  fine. — It  wants  beginning 

and  end. 
Carpe  diem. — Enjoy  the  present  day. 
Carte  blanche. — Unconditional  terms. 
Casus  belli. — An  occasion  for  war. 
Casus  foederis. — A  case  of  conspiracy; 

the  end  of  the  league. 
Catalogue   raisonne.  —  A   catalogue    of 

books   arranged   according   to   their 

subjects. 
Cause  celebre. — A  remarkable  trial  in  a 

court  of  justice. 
Caveat  actor. — Let  the  doer  beware. 
Caveat  emptor. — Let  the  purchaser  take 

heed  or  beware. 
Cavendo  tutus. — Safe  through  caution. 
Cen^est  que  le  premier  pas  qui  coute. — It 

is  only  the  first  step  which  is  difficult. 
Cedant  arma  togse. — Let  military  power 

yield  to  the  civil. 
Cede  Deo. — Submit  to  Providence. 
Certiorari. — To  be  made  more  certain. 
Cessio  bonorum. — Yielding  up  of  goods. 
C^est  une  autre  chose. — That  is  quite  a 

different  thing. 
Chacun  d  son  goUt. — Every  one  to  his 

taste. 
Chanson. — A  song. 
Chansonnette. — A  little  song. 
Chapeau. — A  hat. 
Chapelle  ardente.— The  place  where  a 

dead  person  lies  in  state. 


FOBEION  WORDS  AND  PHRASEiS. 


315 


Chaperon. — An  attendant  on  a  lady,  as 

a  guide  and  protector. 
Charge  d'affaires. — An  ambassador  of 

second  rank. 
Chateau. — A  castle ;  a  country  mansion. 
Chef-d'oeuvre. — A  mastei-piece. 
Chevalier  dHndustrie. — A  knight  of  in- 
dustry ;  one  who  lives  by  persevering 
fraud. 
Chi  tace  confessa. — Silence  is  confession. 
Chiaro-oscuro    or    Chiaroscuro.  —  Light 

and  shadow  in  painting. 
Chose  qui  platt  est  d  demi  vendue. — 
A   thing    which   pleases    is    already 
half  sold. 
Cicerone. — A  guide  or  conductor. 
Cicisheo. — A  dangler  after  a  lady 
Ci-devant. — Formerly ;  former. 
Cito   maturum,    cito  putridum.  —  Soon 

ripe,  soon  rotten. 
Clarior  e  tenebris. — More  bright  from 

obscurity. 
Clique. — A  party ;  a  gang. 
Cognomen. — A  surname. 
Comme  ilfaut. — As  it  should  be. 
Commune  honum. — A  common  good. 
Communia  proprii  dicere. — To  express 

common  things  with  propriety. 
Communibus  annis. — One  year  witli  an- 
other. 
Compos  mentis. — Of  sound  uilnd. 
Cmi  am/)i-e. — With   love   or  hearty   in 

clination. 
Concio  ad  clerum. — A  discourse  to  the 

clergy. 
Cong6  d'elire. — Permission  to  elect. 
Connoisseur. — A  skilful  judge. 
Consensus  facit  legem. — Consent  makes 

the  law. 
Contour. — The  outline  of  a  figure. 
Contra. — Against. 

Contra  bonos  mores. — Against  good  man- 
ners. 
Contretemps. — A  mischance ;  disappoint- 
ment. 
Coram  nobis. — Before  us. 
Coram  non  judice. — Before  one  who  is 

not  the  proper  judge. 
Cornucopia. — The  horn  of  plenty. 
Corpus  delicti. — The  whole  nature  of  the 

offence. 
Corrigenda. — Corrections  to  be  made. 
Coryphseus. — A  leader,  or  chief. 
Cotillon. — A  lively  dance. 


Couleur  de  rose. — Rose-colour;  an  aspect 
of  beauty  and  attractiveness. 

Coup  de  grcLce. — The  finishing  stroke. 

Coup  de  main. — A  bold  and  rapid  enter- 
prise. 

Coup  de  pied. — A  kick. 

Coup  de  soleil. — A  stroke  of  the  sun. 

Coup  d'etat. — A  master-stroke  of  state 
policy. 

Coup  d'ceil. — Rapid  view  or  glance. 

Coitte  qu-il  coute. — Cost  what  it  may. 

Credat  Judseus. — A  Jew  may  believe  it. 

Crescit  amor  nummi  quantum  ipsa  pecu- 
nia  crescit. — The  love  of  i»«ney  in- 
creases as  rapidly  as  the  money  itself 
increases. 

Crescit  eundo. — It  increases  by  going. 

Grescite et multiplicamini. — Iiuiias','  and 
multiply. 

Crimen  falsi. — Falsehood ;  perj  ury . 

Crux  criticoi'um. — The  cross  or  puzzle 
of  critics. 

Cui  bono? — To  what  good  or  advantage? 

Cui  malo? — To  what  evil  will  it  tend? 

Cul  de  sac. — The  bottom  of  the  bag; 
a  difliculty;  a  street  or  lane  that  fias 
no  outlet. 

CuDi  gratio  salis. — With  a  grain  of  salt ; 
witli  some  allowance. 

Cton  „uilli.<  ,/^,/s'.— With  many  others. 

Cum  pricileijio. — With  })rivilege. 

Curia  advisari  vult. — The  court  wishes 
to  be  advised- 

Curiosa  felicitas. — A  felicitous  tact. 

Currente  calamo. — With  a  running  pen  ; 
written  off-hand. 

Custos  rotuUrrum. — Keeper  of  the  rolls. 

Da  capo. — Over  again. 

Damnant  quod  non  inteJlignni. — They 
condemn  what  they  do  not  compre- 
hend. 

Data. — Things  granted  (sing,  datum). 

De  bonis  non. — Of  the  goods  not  yet  ad- 
ministered on. 

De  die  in  diem. — From  day  to  day. 

De  facto. — In  fact;  in  reality. 

De  gustibus  non  est  disputandum. — There 
is  no  disputing  about  tastes. 

Dejure. — By  law  or  right. 

De  mortuis  nil  nisi  bonum.— Say  nothing 
but  what  is  good  of  the  dead. 

De  novo. — Anew. 

Deprofundis. — Out  of  the  deptlis. 


316 


FOREIGN  WOMDS  AND  PHRASES. 


De  trop. — Out  of  place ;  not  wanted. 
Dehito  justitise. — By  debt  of  justice. 
D6hut. — Beginning  of  an    enterprise; 

first  appearance. 
Deceptio    visHs.  —  An    illusion   of    the 

sight. 
Dedimus  potestatem. — We    have    given 

power. 
Deficit. — A  want  or  deficiency. 
Dei  gratid. — By  the  grace  of  God. 
D^jeitner  d  la  fourchette. — A  breakfast 

or  luncheon  with  meats. 
Dele. — Blot  out  or  erase. 
Delenda  est  Carthago. — Carthage  must 

be  blotted  out. 
Delta  (the  Greek  letter  A),  a  triangular 

tract  of  land  toward  the  mouth  of  a 

river. 
Denouement. — An  unravelling  or  wind- 
ing up. 
Deo   adjuvante,   nan    timendum. — God 

helping,  nothing  need  be  feared. 
Deo  favente. — With  God's  favour. 
Deo  gratias. — Thanks  to  God. 
Deojuvante. — With  God's  help. 
Dlo,  non  fortund. — From  God,  not  for- 
tune. 
Deo  volente,  or  D.  V. — God  willing. 
Depot. — A  store ;  the  recruiting  reserve 

of  regiments. 
Dernier  ressort. — The  last  resort. 
Desideratum. — Something    desired    or 

wanted. 
Desunt  csetera. — The  other  things  are 

wanting. 
Detour. — A  circuitous  march. 
Detur  digniori. — Let  it  be  given  to  the 

more  worthy. 
Deus   ex  machind.  —  A  god   from   the 

clouds;  unexpected  aid  in  an  emer- 
gency. 
Devoir. — Duty. 
Dexter. — The  right  hand. 
Dictum. — A  positive  assertion  (pi.  dicta). 
Dictum  de  dicto. — Report  upon  hearsay. 
Dies  faustus. — A  lucky  day. 
Dies  irse. — Day  of  wrath. 
Dies  non. — A  day  on  which  judges  do 

not  sit. 
Dieu  et  mon  droit. — God  and  my  right. 
Dieu  vous  garde. — God  protect  you. 
Dii  majorum  gentium. — The  gods  of  the 

superior  class;   the  t\velve  superior 

gods. 


Dii  penates. — Household  gods. 

Dilettanti. — Persons  who  devote  them- 
selves to  science  merely  for  amuse- 
ment or  relaxation.  (Sing.  Dilettante.) 

Diluvium. — A  deposit  of  superficial 
loam,  sand,  &c.  caused  by  a  deluge. 

Dirigo. — I  direct  or  guide. 

Disjecta  membra.  —  Scattered  parts, 
limbs,  or  writings. 

Distrait. — Absent  in  thought;  absent- 
minded. 

Distringas. — A  writ  for  distraining. 

Divide  et  impera. — Divide  and  govern. 

Doce  ut  dtscas.— Teach,  that  you  may 
learn. 

Docendo  dicimus. — ^We  learn  by  teaching. 

Dolce. — Soft  and  agreeable.    (Music.) 

Dolce  far  niente. — Sweet  nothing-to-do. 

Doli  incapax. — Incapable  of  mischief. 

Doloroso. — Soft  and  pathetic.    (Music.) 

Domicile  (L.  domicilium). — An  abode. 

Do/mine  dirige  nos. — 0  Lord,  direct  us. 

Dominus  vobiscum. — The  Lord  be  with 
you. 

Double  entendre. — Double  meaning  (cor- 
rectly written  double  entente). 

Douceur. — A  present  or  bribe ;  sweetness. 

Draco. — A  dragon ;  a  constellation. 

Dramatis  personse. — The  characters  in  a 
play. 

Duet  (Ital.  duetto). — A  song  for  two  per- 
formers. 

Dulce  est  desipere  in  loco. — It  is  pleasant 
to  jest,  or  revel,  at  the  proper  time. 

Dulce  et  decorum  est  pro  patrid  mori. — 
It  is  sweet  and  pleasant  to  die  for 
one's  country. 

Dulia. — An  inferior  kind  of  worship. 

Dum  spiro,  spero. — Whilst  I  breathe,  I 
hope. 

Dum  vivimus,  vivamus. — While  we  live, 
let  us  live. 

Duo. — Two ;  a  two-part  song. 

Duodecimo. — A  book  having  twelve 
leaves  to  a  sheet. 

Durante  placito,  or  dti^ante  beneplacito. 
— During  pleasure. 

Durante  vitd. — Duiing  life. 

Dux  foemina  facti. — A  woman  was  the 
leader  to  the  deed. 

E  pluribus  unum. — One  out  of  many ; 
one  composed  of  many :  the  motto  of 
the  United  States. 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


817 


Eau  de  vie. — Brandy ;  water  of  life. 

Ecce  homo. — Behold  the  man. 

Ecce  signum. — Behold  the  sign. 

Eclair cissement. — The  clearing- up  of  an 
affair. 

Eclat. — Splendour ;  applause. 

Editio  princeps. — The  first  edition. 

Elan. — Buoyancy ;  dash. 

Elegit. — He  hath  elected;  a  wTit  of  exe- 
cution. 

Eleve. — A  pupil. 

Elite.— ThQ  best  part. 

Embonpoint. — Roundness;  good  con- 
dition. 

Emeritus. — One  retired  from  active  offi- 
cial duties. 

Emeute. — Insurrection ;  uproar. 

Ehnpressement. — Eagerness ;  ardour. 

Eki  ami. — As  a  friend. 

En  avant! — Forward! 

En  flUte. — Carrying  guns  on  the  upper 
deck  only. 

En  grande  tenue. — In  full  dress. 

En  masse. — In  a  mass ;  in  a  body. 

En  passant. — By  the  way ;  in  passing. 

En  rapport. — In  communication 

E7r  revanche. — In  return. 

En  route. — On  the  way. 

Kiifans  2')erdus. — Lost  childi'en;  the  for- 
knn  hope. 

Ki(  n  It  I. — Weariness ;  lassitude. 

E use  petit  placidam  sub  libertate  quietem. 
— By  his  sword  he  seeks  the  calm  re- 
pose of  liberty. 

Ensemble. — The  whole  taken  together. 

Entente  cordiale. — The  cordial  under- 
standing between  two  countries. 

Entre  nous. — Between  ourselves. 

Entree. — Entrance. 

Entremets. — Small  and  dainty  dishes  set 
between  the  principal  ones  at  table. 

Eo  nomine. — By  that  name. 

EquilibHum. — Equality  of  weight ;  even 
balance. 

Ergo. — Therefore. 

Eripuit  coelofulmen,  sceptrumque  tyran- 
nis.  —  He  snatched  the  thunderbolt 
from  heaven,  and  the  sceptre  from 
tyrants. 

Erratum.  —  A  mistake  or  error  (pi. 
errata). 

Espieglerie. — Waggish  tricks. 

Esprit  de  corps. — The  animating  spirit 
of  a  collective  body. 

27' 


Est  modus  in  rebus. — There  is  a  medium 

in  all  things. 
Esto  perpetua. — May  it  last  forever. 
Et  csetera. — And  the  rest. 
Eureka. — I  have  found  it. 
Ex. — Out  of;  late  (as,  ex-consul). 
Ex  animo. — Heartily. 
Ex  cathedrd.  —  From   the  chair;   with 

high  authority. 
Ex    concesso.  —  Frojn    what    has    been 

granted. 
Ex  curid. — Out  of  court. 
Ex  fumo  dare  lucem. — Out  of  smoke  to 

bring  light. 
Ex  nihilo  nihil  Jit. — Nothing  can  come 

of  nothing. 
Ex  officio. — By  virtue  of  his  office. 
Ex  parte. — On  one  side  only  (before  a 

noun,  exparte). 
'Ex  pede  HercuUm. —  We  recognize  a 

Hercules  from  the  size  of  the  foot; 

that  is,  we  judge  of  the  whole  from 

the  specimen. 
Ex  post  facto. — After  the  deed  is  done. 
Ex  tempore. — Without  premeditation. 
Ex  uno  disce  omnes. — From  one  learn 

all;  from  one  judge  of  the  whole. 
Excelsior. — More  elevated ;  onward. 
Excerpta. — Extracts. 
Exempli  gratid. — As  for  example. 
Exeunt  omnes. — All  retire. 
Experimentum  crucis. — A   decisive    ex- 
periment. 
Experto  credo. — Believe   one   who   has 

experience. 
Expose. — An  exposition ;  recital. 

Faber  suie  fortunse. — The  architect  of 

his  own  fortune. 
Facile  primus,  facile  princeps. — By  far 

the  first  or  chiefest. 
Facilis  est  descensus. — Descent  is  easy. 
Fac  simile.  —  Make  it  like:   hence,  an 

exact  copy. 
Fac  totum. — Do  all :  a  man  of  all  work. 
Facta  est  lux. — There  was  light. 
Fas  est  ab  hoste  doceri. — It  is  allowable 

to  learn  even  from  an  enemy. 
Fata  obstant. — The  fates  oppose  it. 
Fauteuil. — An  easy-chair. 
Faux  pas. — A  false  step. 
Felo  de  se. — A  self-murderer. 
Feme  couverte. — A  married  woman. 
Feme  sole. — A  woman  unmarried. 


318 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES, 


Festina  lenU. — Hasten  slowly ;  advance 

steadily  rather  than  hurriedly. 
Fete. — A  feast  or  celebration. 
Fete  champetre. — A  rural  feast. 
Feu  dc  joie. — A  bonfire ;  a  discharge  of 

musketry  on  days  of  rejoicing. 
Feuilleton. — A  small  leaf;  a  supplement 

to  a  newspaper;  a  pamphlet. 
Fiat. — Let  it  bo  done. 
Fiat  justitia,  mat  ccelum. — Let  justice 

be  done,  though  the  heavens  should 

fall. 
Fiat  lux. — Let  there  be  light. 
Fide,  ncn  armis. — By  faith,  not  by  arms. 
Fide,  sed  cui  vide. — Trust,  but  see  whom. 
Fides  et  justitia. — Fidelity  and  justice. 
Fidus  Achates. — Faithful  Achates  (that 

is,  a  true  friend). 
Fieri  facias. — Cause    it    to    be    done 

(a  kind  of  writ). 
FClius  nullius. — A  son  of  nobody. 
Fille-de-chambre. — A  chambermaid. 
^Finale. — The  close  or  end. 
Finem  respice. — Look  to  the  end. 
Finis. — The  end. 
Finis  coronat  opus. — The   end  crowns 

the  work. 
Flagrante   hello.  —  While    the    war    is 

raging. 
Flagrante  delicto. — In  the  commission 

of  the  crime. 
Fldneur. — A  lounger. 
Flecti,  non  frangi. — To  be  bent,  not  to 

be  broken. 
Fleur-de-lis.  —  The  flower  of  the   lily 

(■pi.  fleurs-de-lis). 
Forte. — In  music,  a  direction  to  sing  or 

play  with  force  or  spirit. 
Fortes  fortuna  juvat. — Fortune  assists 

the  brave. 
Fortissimo. — Very  loud. 
Fortiter  in  re. — Resolute  in  deed. 
Fracas. — Bustle ;  a  slight  quarrel ;  more 

ado  about  the  thing  than  it  is  worth. 
Fruges  consumer e  nati. — Born  merelj'  to 

consume  the  fruits  of  the  earth. 
Fugam  fecit. — He  has  taken  to  flight. 
Fuit  Ilium. — Troy  has  been. 
Functus  officio. — Out  of  office. 
Furore. — Excitement. 

Gaiate  de  coeur. — Gayety  of  heart. 

Gallici. — In  French. 

Gardez  hien. — Take  good  care. 


Gardez  lafoi. — Keep  the  faith. 

Gaucherie. — Awkwardness. 

Gaudeamus  igitur. — So  let  us  be  joy- 
ful. 

Gendarme. — A  military  policeman. 

Gendarmerie. — The  body  of  the  gen- 
darmes. 

Genius  loci. — The  genius  of  the  place. 

Genus  irritdbile  vatum. — Irritable  trib« 
of  poets. 

Gloria  in  excelsis. — Glory  to  God  in  the 
highest. 

Gratis. — Free  of  cost. 

Gratis  dictum. — Mere  assertion. 

Gravamen. — The  thing  complained  of. 

Grisette. — Dressed  in  gray  (a  term  ap- 
plied to  French  shop-girls,  &c.). 

Gusto. — Great  relish. 

Habeas  corpus. — You  are  to  have  the 
body:  a  writ  of  right,  by  virtue  of 
which  every  citizen  can,  when  im- 
prisoned, demand  to  be  put  on  his 
trial. 

Habitue. — A  frequenter. 

Hsec  olim  meminisse  juvabit. — It  will  be 
pleasant  hereafter  to  remember  these 
things. 

Haricot. — A  kind  of  ragout ;  a  kidney- 
bean. 

Haud  passibus  sequis. — Not  with  equal 
steps.  [Wrongly  quoted  :  see  Non,  &c.] 

Haut  gout. — High  flavour. 

Hauteur. — Haughtiness . 

Helluo  librorum. — A  book-worm. 

Hie  et  ubique. — Here,  there,  and  every- 
where. 

Hicjacet. — Here  lies. 

Hinc  illse  lacrymse.  —  Hence  proceed 
these  tears. 

Hoc  age. — Do  this ;  attend  to  what  you 
are  doing. 

Homme  d'esprit. — A  man  of  talent,  or 
of  wit. 

Homo  multarum  literarum. — A  man  of 
much  learning. 

Honi  soil  qui  mal  y  pense. — Evil  be  to 
him  that  evil  thinks. 

Honores  mutant  mores. — Honours  change 
men's  manners. 

Horafugit. — The  hour  or  time  flies. 

Horresco  referens. — I  shudder  to  relate 

Hors  de  combat. — Disabled  for  fighting ; 
vanquished. 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


319 


Hortus  SICCUS. — A  collection  of  dried 

plants. 
Hostis  humani  generis. — An  enemy  of 

the  human  race. 
Hotel  de  ville. — A  town-hall. 
Hotel- Dieu.  —  The    chief    hospital    in 

French  cities. 
Humanum  est  errare. — It  is  human  to 

err. 
Hunc  tu  caveto. — Beware  of  him. 

Ibidem,  contracted  ibid,  or  id. — In  the 
same  place. 

IcJi  dien. — I  serve. 

Id  est. — That  is ;  abridged  i.  e. 

Id  genus  omne. — All  of  that  sort. 

Idem,  contracted  id. — The  same.  {Id. 
ib.,  the  same  author;  in  the  same 
place.) 

Idoneus  homo. — A  fit  man. 

Ignorantia  legis  neminem  excusat. — Igno- 
rance of  the  law  excuses  no  one. 

II  ale  diable  au  corps. — The  devil  is  in 
him. 

Imitatores,  servum  pecus. — Imitators,  a 
servile  herd. 

Imperium  in  imperio. — One  government 
existing  within  another. 

Impransus. — One  who  has  not  dined. 

Imprimatur. — Let  it  bo  printed. 

Imprimis. — In  the  first  place. 

Impromptu. — A  prompt  remark  with- 
out study. 

In  articulo  mortis.  —  At  the  point  of 
death. 

In  capite. — In  the  head. 

In  ccelo  quies. — There  is  rest  in  heaven. 

In  commendam. — In  trust. 

In  conspectu  fori. — In  the  eye  of  the 
law;  in  the  sight  of  the  court. 

In  curid. — In  the  court. 

In  duplo. — Twice  as  much. 

In  equilibrio. — Equally  balanced. 

In  esse. — In  being. 

In  extenso. — At  full  length. 

In  extremis. — At  the  point  of  death. 

In  formd  pauperis. — As  a  pauper. 

Inforo  conscientise. — Before  the  tribunal 
of  conscience. 

In  hoc  signo  vinces. — In  this  sign  thou 
Shalt  conquer. 

In  limine. — At  the  threshold. 

In  loco. — In  the  place. 

In  medias  res. — Into  the  midst  of  things. 


In  memoriam. — To  the  memory  of. 

In  perpetuum. — Forever. 

In  petto. — In  reserve;  in  one's  breast. 

In  posse. — In  possible  existence. 

In  posterum. — For  the  time  to  come. 

In  propria  persond. — In  his  person. 

Inpuris  naturalibus. — Quite  naked. 

In  re. — In  the  matter  of. 

In  situ. — In  its  original  situation. 

In  statu  quo. — In  the  former  state. 

In  te,  Domine,  speravi. — In  thee,  Lord, 
have  I  put  my  trust. 

In  terrorem. — By  way  of  warning. 

Tn  totidem  verbis. — In  so  many  words. 

In  toto. — Altogether. 

In  transitu. — On  the  passage. 

In  utrumque  paratus. — Prepared  for 
either  event. 

In  vacuo.  —  In  empty  space,  or  in  a 
vacuum. 

In  vino  veHtas. — There  is  truth  in  wine. 

Incognito. — Disguised ;  unknown. 

Index  expurgatorius. — A  list  of  pro- 
hibited books. 

Infra  dignitatem. — Beneath  one's  dig- 
nity. 

Innuendo. — Covert  meaning;  indirect 
hint. 

Inops  consilii. — Without  counsel. 

Insouciance. — Carelessness ;  indifference. 

Instar  omnium. — One  will  suffice  for  all ; 
an  example  to  others. 

Inter  alia. — Among  other  things. 

Inter  arma  leges  silent. — In  the  midst 
of  arms  the  laws  are  silent. 

Inter  nos. — Between  oiirselves. 

Inter  se. — Among  themselves. 

Ipse  dixit. — He  himself  said  it;  dog- 
matic assertion. 

Ipsissima  verba. — The  very  words. 

Ipso  facto. — By  the  fact  itself;  actually. 

Ipso  jure. — By  the  law  itself. 

Ira  furor  brevis  est.  —  Anger  is  briel 
madness. 

Ita  lex  scripta  est. — Thus  the  law  ia 
written. 

Item. — Also. 

Jacta  est  alea. — The  die  is  cast. 

Jamais  arriere. — Never  behind. 

Je  ne  suis  quoi. — I  know  not  what. 

Jet  d'eau. — A  jet  of  water. 

Jen  de  mots. — Play  upon  words ;  a  pun. 

Jell  d''esprit. — A  witticism. 


320 


FOREIGN  WOMDiS  AND  PHMASE/S, 


Judicium  Dei. — The  judgment  of  God. 
Juniores  ad  labores. — Young   men  for 

labours. 
Jure  divino. — By  divine  Ijaw. 
Jure  humano. — By  human  law. 
Jus  civile. — Civil  law. 
Jus  gentium. — The  law  of  nations. 
Jus  gladii. — Right  of  the  sword. 
Juste  milieu. — The  golden  mean;  a  just 

medium. 
Justitise  soror  fides. — Faith  is  the  sister 

of  justice. 

La  critique  est  aisee,  et  Vart  est  difficile. 

— Criticism  is  easy,  but  art  is  diflB- 

cult. 
Labor  ipse  voluptas. — Labour  itself  is 

pleasure. 
Labor  omnia  vincit. — Labour  conquers 

all  things. 
Laissez-nous  faire. — Let  us  alone. 
Lapsus  calami. — A  slip  of  the  pen ;  an 

error  in  writing. 
Lapsus  linguse. — A  slip  of  the  tongue. 
Lapsus  memorise. — A  slip  of  memory. 
Lares  etpendtes. — Household  gods. 
Uargent. — Money,  or  silver. 
Laudator  temporis  acti. — A  praiser  of 
.    time  past. 

Laus  Deo. — Praise  to  God. 
Laus  propria  sordet. — Praise  of  one's 

own  self  defiles. 
Le  beau  monde. — The  fashionable  world. 
Le  bon  temps  viendra. — The  good  time 

will  come. 
Le  grand  ceuvre. — The  great  work ;  the 

philosopher's  stone. 
Le  pas. — Precedence  in  place  or  rank. 
Le  savoir-faire. — The  knowledge  how  to 

act;  address. 
Le  tout  ensemble. — All  together. 
Lege. — Read. 

Leges  legum. — The  law  of  laws. 
Lhe  majeste. — High  treason. 
L'etoiU  du  nor-d. — The  star  of  the  north. 
Lettre  de  cachet. — A  sealed  letter ;  a  royal 

warrant. 
Levee. — A  morning  visit  or  reception. 
Lex  loci. — The  law  of  the  place. 
Lex  magna  est,  et  prsevalebit. — The  law 

is  great,  and  will  prevail. 
Lex    non    scripta. — The  unwritten  or 

common  law. 
Lex  scripta. — Statute  law. 


Lex  talionis. — The  law  of  retaliation. 

Lex  terrse,  lex  patrise. — The  law  of  the 
land. 

Lliomme  propose,  et  Dieu  dispose. — Man 
proposes,  and  God  disposes. 

Libretto. — A  little  book  or  pamphlet. 

Licentia  vatHm. — ^A  poetical  license. 

Lingua  Franca. — The  mixed  language 
spoken  by  Europeans  in  the  East. 

Liqueur. — A  cordial. 

Lis  litem  general. — Strife  begets  strife. 

Lis  subjudice. — A  case  not  yet  decided. 

Lite  pendente. — During  the  trial. 

Litera  scripta  manet. — The  written  let- 
ter remains. 

Literati. — Men  of  letters  or  learning. 

Loco  citato. — In  the  place  cited. 

Locum  tenens. — One  who  holds  a  place 
for  another. 

Locus  sigilli  (L.S.). — The  place  of  the 
seal. 

Longo  intervallo. — At  a  great  distance. 

Ludere  cum  sacris. — To  trifle  with  sacred 
things. 

Lusus  naturse. — A  sport  or  freak  of  na- 
ture. 

Made  virtute. — Proceed  in  virtue. 
Mademoiselle. — A     young     unmarried 

lady. 
Magna   Charta. — The  great  charter  of 

England. 
Magna  civitas,  magna  solitudo. — A  great 

city  is  a  great  desert. 
Magna  est  Veritas,  et  prsevalebit.  —  The 

truth  is  great,  and  will  prevail. 
Magni  nominis  umbra. — The  shadow  of 

a  great  name. 
Magnum  opus. — A  great  work. 
Magnus  Apollo. — Great  Apollo ;  one  of 

high  authority. 
Maison  de  ville. — The  town-house. 
Maitre    d'hotel.  —  An   hotel -keeper;    a 

house-steward. 
Majordomo  (Ital.maiordomo). — One  who 

has  the  management  of  a  household. 
Malcifide. — In  bad  faith ;  treacherously. 
Malapropos^ — Out  of  time ;  unbecoming. 
Malaria. — Noxious  exhalations. 
Malgre. — In  spite  of. 
Malum  in  se. — Bad  in  itself. 
3Iandamus. — We  command :  a  writ  from 

the  Queen's  Bench. 
Manege. — A  riding-school. 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


321 


Mania  a  potu. — Madness  caused  by- 
drunkenness. 

Manuforti. — With  a  strong  hand. 

Mardi  gras. — Shrove-Tuesday. 

Mare  clausum. — A  closed  sea ;  a  bay. 

Mater familias. — The  mother  of  a  family. 

Materia  medica. —  Substances  used  in 
the  healing  art. 

Matinee. — A  morning  party. 

Mauvais  goUt. — Bad  taste. 

Mauvais  sujet. — A  worthless  fellow. 

Mauvaise  honte. — False  modesty;  bash- 
fulness. 

Maximum. — The  greatest. 

Maximus  in  minimis. — Very  great  in 
trifling  things. 

Me  judice.—l  being  judge;  in  my  own 
opinion. 

Medio  tutissimus  ibis. — A  medium  course 
will  be  safest. 

Meditatione  fugse. — In  contemplation  of 
flight. 

Memento  moH. — Remember  death. 

Memorabilia. — Things  to  be  remem- 
bered. 

Memoriter. — By  rote. 

Menage. — Household. 

Mens  Sana  in  corpore  sano. — A  sound 
mind  in  a  sound  body. 

Mens  sibi  conscia  rc<fti. — A  mind  con- 
scious of  rectitude. 

Mensa  et  thoro. — From  bed  and  board. 

Merum  sal. — Pure  salt;  genuine  Attic 
wit. 

Meum  et  tuum. — Mine  and  thine. 

Minimum. — The  least. 

Minutise. — Minute  concerns ;  trifles. 

Mirabile  dic^M.— Wonderful  to  be  told. 

Mirabilia. — Wonders. 

Mittimus. — We  send :  a  warrant  for  the 
commitment  of  an  offender. 

Modus  operandi. — Manner  of  operation. 

Montani  semper  liberi. — Mountaineers 
are  always  freemen. 

Morceau. — A  morsel. 

More  suo. — In  his  own  way. 

Mot  du  guet. — A  watchword. 

Multum  in  parvo.  —  Much  in  a  small 
space. 

Mutanda. — Things  to  be  altered. 

Mutatis  mutandis. — The  needful  changes 
being  made. 

Mutato  nomine.  —  The  name  being 
changed. 


Natoete. — Ingenuousness ;  simplicity. 

iVe  cede  malis. — Yield  not  to  misfortune. 

Ne  exeat. — Let  him  not  depart. 

' Ne  plus  ultra. — Nothing  further;  the 
uttermost  point. 

Ne  quid  nimis. — Not  too  much  of  any 
thing;  do  nothing  to  excess. 

Ne  sutor  ultra  crepidam. — Let  not  tho 
shoemaker  go  beyond  his  last. 

Ne  tentes,  aut  perjice. — Attempt  not,  or 
accomplish  thoroughly. 

Nee  pluribus  impar. — Not  an  unequal 
match  for  numbers. 

Nee  scire  fas  est  omnia. — It  is  not  per- 
mitted to  know  all  things. 

Necessitatis  non  habet  legem. — Necessity 
has  no  law. 

Nee. — Born. 

Nefasti  dies. — Days  upon  which  no 
public  business  was  transacted;  also, 
unlucky  days. 

Nemine  contradicente. — ^No  one  contra- 
dicting. 

Nemine  dissentiente. — Without  opposi- 
tion or  dissent. 

Nemo  me  impune  lacessit. — No  one 
wounds  me  with  impunity. 

Nemo  mortalium  omnibus  horis  sapit, — 
No  one  is  wise  at  all  times. 

Nemo  repentefuit  turpissimus. — No  man 
ever  became  a  villain  at  once. 

Nemo  solus  sapit. — No  one  is  wise  alone. 

Niaiserie. — Sil  li  n  ess. 

Nihil  debet. — He  owes  nothing :  a  plea 
denying  a  debt. 

Nihil  quod  tetigit,  non  omavit. — What- 
ever he  touched  he  embellished. 

Nil  admirari. — To  wonder  at  nothing. 

Nil  desperandum. — Never  despair. 

Nimium  ne  crede  eolori. — Trust  not  too 
much  to  looks. 

NHmporte. — It  matters  not. 

Nisi  Dominusfrustra. — Unless  the  Lord 
be  with  us,  all  efforts  are  in  vain. 

Noblesse  oblige. — Rank  imposes  obliga- 
tion. 

Nolens  volens. — Willing  or  unwilling. 

Noli  me  tang  ere.— Don't  touch  me. 

Nolle  prosequi. — Unwilling  to  proceed. 

Nolo  episcopari. — I  am  not  willing  to 
be  made  a  bishop  (an  old  formal  way 
of  declining  a  bishopric). 

N(y)n  de  guerre. — An  assumed  name. 

Xom  deplume. — A  literary  title. 


322 


FOMEIGN  WOMD^S  AND  PHMAiSm. 


Nomen  et  omen. — Name  and  omen;  a 

name  that  is  ominousT 
JVbn  compos  mentis. — Not  of  sound  mind. 
Hon  dejlciente  crumend. — If  the  money 

does  not  fail. 
JVon  est  disputandum. — It  is  not  to  be 

disputed. 
JVon  est  inventus. — Not  found, 
JVon  libet. — It  does  not  please  me. 
JVon  mi  ricordo. — I  don't  remember. 
JVon  nobis  solum. — Not  merely  for  our- 
selves. 
Non  obstante. — Notwithstanding. 
Non  omnis  moriar. — I  shall  not  wholly 

die. 
JVon  passibus  sequis. — Not  with  equal 

steps. 
JVon  sequitur. — It  does  not  follow:  an 

unwarranted  conclusion. 
JVon  sibi,  sed  omnibus. — Not  for  itself, 

but  for  all. 
Nonchalance. — Coolness;   easy  indiffer- 
ence. 
Nonpareil. — Peerless;  a  small  printing 

type. 
Nosce  teipsum. — Know  thyself. 
Noscitur  ex  sociis. — He  is  known  by  his 

companions. 
Nota  bene. — Mark  well. 
Nous  verrons. — We  shall  see. 
Novus  homo. — A  new  man. 
Nudum  pactum. — An    invalid    agree- 
ment. 
Nulla   nuova,  bona  nuova. — The  best 

news  is  no  news. 
Nulliusjilius. — The  son  of  nobody. 
Nunc  aut  nunqicam. — Now  or  never. 

O  temporal  o  mores! — Oh,  the  times  1 
oh,  the  manners ! 

Obiit. — He  (or  she)  died. 

Obiter  dictum.  —  A  thing  said  by  the 
way,  or  in  passing. 

Obsta  principiis. — Resist  the  first  be- 
ginnings. 

Odiprqfanum. — I  loathe  the  profane. 

Odium  theologicum. — The  hatred  of 
theologians. 

Ohe!  jam  satis. — Oh,  there  is  now 
enough. 

Ollapodrida. — An  incongruous  mixture. 

Omne  ignotum  pro  magnifico. — What- 
ever is  unknown  is  thought  to  be 
magnificent. 


Omnes. — AJl. 

Omnia  bona  bonis. — All  things  are  good 

with  the  good. 
Omnia  vincit  amor. — Love  conquers  all 

things. 
On-dit. — A  rumour ;  a  flying  report. 
Onus. — Burden. 
Onus  probandi. — The  responsibility  of 

producing  proof. 
Ope  et  consilio. — With  assistance  and 

counsel. 
Ora  et  labora. — Pray  and  work. 
Orator  fit,  poeta  nascitur. — The  orator 

is   made   by  education,  but   a  poet 

must  be  born. 
Ore  rotundo. — With  full-sounding  voice. 
Otium  cum  dignitate. — Dignified  leisure. 
Outre. — Preposterous ;  eccentric. 

Pallida  mors. — Pale  death. 

Par  excellence. — By  way  of  eminence. 

Par  nobile  fratrum. — A  noble  pair  of 

brothers;  two  just  alike. 
Pari  passu. — With  equal  step;  in  the 

same  degree. 
Parole  dlionneur. — Word  of  honour. 
Pars  pro  toto. — Part  for  the  whole. 
Particeps  criminis. — An  accomplice. 
Parturiunt  monies,  nascetur   ridiculus 

mus. — The  mountains  are  in  labour; 

a  ridiculous  mouse  will  be  brought 

forth. 
Parva  componere  magnis. — To  compare 

small  things  with  great. 
Parvenu. — A  new-comer ;  an  upstart. 
Pas. — A  step ;  precedence. 
Passe-partout. — A  master-key. 
Passim. — In  many  places ;  everywhere. 
Paterfamilias. — The  father  of  a  family. 
Pater  noster. — Our  Father;  the  Lord's 

prayer. 
Pater  patriae. — Father  of  his  country. 
Patois. — A  corrupt  dialect. 
Pax  in  bello. — Peace  in  war. 
Peccavi. — I  have  sinned. 
Penchant. — An  inclination;    a   leaning 

toward. 
Pendente  lite. — While  the  suit  is  pending. 
Penetralia. — Secret  recesses. 
Per  aspera  ad  astra. — Through  trials  to 

glory. 
Per  capita. — By  the  head. 
Per  cent,  or  per  centum. — By  the  hun- 
dred 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHUASES. 


323 


Per  conira. — Contrariwise. 

Per  curiam. — By  the  court. 

Per  diem. — By  the  day. 

Per  fan  et  nefas. — Through  right  and 

wrong. 
Per  saltum. — ^With  a  leap ;  at  once. 
Per  se. — By  itself;  alone. 
Perdu. — Concealed. 

Pere  defamille. — The  father  of  a  family. 
Pe^i^.— Small ;  little. 
Petitio  principii. — A   begging  of   the 

question. 
Petit-^mattre. — A  fop. 
Peu  dpeu. — Gradually;  little  by  little. 
Pinxit. — Painted  it:    placed  after  the 

artist's  name  on  a  picture. 
Pi^. — More. 

Plateau. — A  plain ;  a  flat  surface. 
Plebs. — Common  people. 
Poco. — A  little. 
Poeta  nascifur,  nonfit. — A  poet  is  born, 

not  made. 
Point  d'appui. — Point  of  support ;  prop. 
Poisson  d'Avril. — April  fool. 
Populus  vult  decipi. — People  like  to  be 

deceived. 
Posse  comitatHs.  —  The  power  of    the 

county. 
Post  mortem. — After  death. 
Postulata. — Things  assumed. 
Priecognita. — Things  previously  known. 
Prsemonitus,  prmnunitus. — Forewarned, 

forearmed. 
Preux  chevalier. — A  brave  knight. 
Primd  facie. — On  the  first  view. 
Primum  mobile. — The  primary  motive, 

or  moving  power.  ■• 

Primus    inter    pares.  —  Chief    among 

equals. 
Principia,  non  homines. — Principles,  not 

men. 
Pi'incipiis  obsta. — Resist  the  first  inno- 
vations. 
Pro  aris  et  focis.—For  our  altars  and 

our  hearths. 
Pro  bono  publico. — For  the  public  good. 
Pro  et  con  (for  contra). — For  and  against. 
Pro  formd. — For  form's  sake ;  accord- 
ing to  form. 
Pro  hdc  vice. — For  this  turn  or  occasion. 
Pro  loco  et  tempore. — For  the  place  and 

time. 
Propatrid. — For  our  country. 
P)o  raid. — In  proportion. 


Pro  re  natd. — For  a  special  emergency. 
Pro  tanto. — For  so  much. 
Pro  tempore. — For  the  time-being. 
Probatum  est.—-lt  has  been  tried  and 

proved. 
Proces-verbal. — A  written  statement. 
Procul,  O  procul  este,profani! — Far,  far 

hence,  0  ye  profane ! 
Pronuyiciamento. — A  public  declaration. 
Propagandd  fide. — ^For  extending  the 

faith. 
Protege. — A  person  taken  charge  of,  or 

patronized ;  a  ward,  &c. 
Prudens  futuri. — Thoughtful    of    the 

future. 
Pugnis    et   calcibus.  —  With    fists    and 

heels ;  with  all  the  might. 
Punica  fides. — Punic  faith ;  treachery. 

Qusere. — Query;  inquiry. 

Quamdiu  se  bene  gesserit. — So  long  as  he 
shall  conduct  himself  properly. 

Quantum. — The  due  proportion. 

Quantum  libet. — As  much  as  you  please. 

Quantum  meruit. — As  much  as  he  de- 
served. 

Quantum  sufficit. —  A  sufficient  quan- 
tity; enough. 

Quare  impedit. — Why  he  hinders. 

Quasi  dicas.—AB  if  you  should  say. 

Quelque  chose. — A  trifle. 

Qui  capita  ille  facit. — He  who  takes  it 
makes  it. 

Quipensef — Who  thinks? 

Qui  tarn? — Who  as  well  ?  the  title  given 
to  a  certain  action  at  law. 

Qui  transtulit  sustinet.^-Iie  who  brought 
us  hither  still  preserves  us. 

Qui  va  Id? — Who  goes  there  ? 

Qui  vive? — Who  goes  there?  hence,  on 
the  qui-vive,  on  the  alert. 

Quid-nuncf — What  now?  a  news- 
monger. 

Quid  pro  quo. — One  thing  for  another; 
"  tit  for  tat." 

Quid  rides? — Why  do  you  laugh? 

Quis  separabit  f — Who  shall  separate  us  ? 

Quo  animo? — With  what  intention? 

Quo  jure? — By  what  riglit? 

Quo  warranto.  —  By  what  warrant  or 
authority. 

Quoad  hoc. — To  this  extent. 

Q^od  avertat  Deus? — Which  may  God 
avert ! 


324 


FOMEIQN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


Quod  vide. — Which  see. 

Quodlibet. — A  nice  point;  a  subtlety. 

Quondam. — Former. 

Quorum. — Of  whom :  a  term  signifying 
a  sufficient  number  for  a  certain  busi- 
ness. 

Quos  Deus  vult  perdere,  prius  dementat. 
— Those  whom  God  wishes  to  destroy, 
he  first  deprives  of  understanding. 

Ragout. — A  highly-seasoned  dish. 

Mara  avis. — A  rare  bird ;  a  prodigy. 

JRe  infectd. — The  business  being  un- 
finished. 

Recte  et  suaviter.— Justly  and  mildly. 

Rectus  in  curid. — Upright  in  the  court ; 
with  clean  hands. 

Redolet  lucernd. — It  smells  of  the  lamp ; 
it  is  a  laboured  production. 

Reductio  ad  absurdum. — A  reducing  a 
position  to  an  absurdity. 

Regina. — Queen. 

Regium  donum.  —  A  royal  donation 
(a  grant  fronv  the  British  crown  to 
the  Irish  Presbyterian  clergy). 

Regnant  populi. — The  people  rule. 

Rencontre. — An  encounter. 

Requiescant  in  pace. — May  they  rest  in 
peace. 

Requiescat  in  pace. — May  he  rest  in  peace. 

Rerum  primordia. — The  first  elements 
of  things. 

Res  angusta  domi. — Narrow  circum- 
stances at  home ;  poverty. 

Respice  Jinem. — Look  to  the  end. 

Respuhlica. — The  commonwealth. 

Restaurateur.  —  A  tavern-keeper  who 
provides  dinners,  &c. 

Resume. — An  abstract  or  summary. 

Resurgam. — I  shall  rise  again. 

Revenons  d  nos  moutons. — Let  us  return 
to  our  subject. 

Rex. — King. 

Rouge. — Red  colouring  for  the  skin. 

Rouge  et  noir. — Red  and  black  (a  kind 
of  game). 

Rus  in  urhe. — The  country  in  town. 

Ruse  contre  ruse. — Diamond  cut  dia- 
mond ;  trick  for  trick. 

Ruse  de  guerre. — A  stratagem  of  war. 

Salle.— Hall. 

Salus  populi  suprema  lex  est. — The  wel- 
fare of  the  people  is  the  supreme  law. 


Salvo  pudore. — Without  offence  to  mo 

desty. 
Sanctum  sanctorum. — Holy  of  Holies 
Sang-froid. — Coolness ;  self-possession. 
Sans. — Without. 

Sans  ceremcmie. — Without  ceremony. 
Sans  peur  et  sans  reproche. — Without 

fear  and  without  reproach. 
Sans  souci. — Without  care;   free   and 

easy. 
Sans  tdche. — Stainless. 
Sans-culottes. — Without  breeches :  a  term 

applied  to  the  rabble  of  the  French 

Revolution. 
Sartor  resartus. — The  cobbler  mended. 
Satis,    superque. — Enough,    and    more 

than  enough. 
Satis  verborum. — Enough  of  words ;  you 

need  say  no  more. 
Sauve  qui  pent. — Save  himself  who  can. 
Savant. — A  learned  man. 
Savoir-faire. — Ability ;  skill. 
Scandalum  magnatum. — Scandal  of  the 

great. 
Scienter. — Knowingly. 
Scilicet. — That  is  to  say;  to  wit. 
Scire  facias. — Cause  it  to  be  known. 
Scripsit. — Wrote  it. 
Sculpsit. — Engraved  it :  placed  after  the 

engraver's  name  in  prints. 
Secundum  artem. — According  to  rule. 
Selon  les  regies. — According  to  rule. 
Semper  f  delis. — Always  faithful. 
Seinper  idem. — Always  the  same. 
Semper  pa7-atus. — Always  ready. 
SenatUs   consultum. — A   decree  of  the 

senate. 
Seriatim. — In  order ;  successively. 
aS^'  quseris  peninsulam  amcenam,  circum- 

spice. — If  thou  seekest  a  beautiful 

peninsula,  behold  it  here. 
Sic  in  originali. — So  it  stands  in  the 

original. 
Sic  itur  ad  astra. — Such  is  the  way  to 

immortality. 
Sic  passim. — So  everywhere. 
Sic  semper  tyrannis. — So  be  it  ever  to 

tyrants. 
Sic  transit  gloria  mundi. — Thus  passes 

away  the  glory  of  the  world. 
Sicut  ante. — As  before. 
Similia  similibus  curantur. — Like  things 

are  cured  by  like. 
Simplex  munditiis. — Of  simple  elegance. 


FOREIGN  WOBDS  AND  PHRASES. 


325 


Sine  die. — ^Without  naming  a  day. 

Sine  invidid. — Without  envy. 

Sine  qua  non. — An  indispensable  requi- 
site. 

Siste,  viator. — Stop,  traveller. 

Sobriquet. — A  nickname. 

>Sor-c/isaw«.— Self-styled ;  pretended. 

Soiree. — An  evening  party. 

Souvenir. — Remembrance ;  a  keepsake. 

Spectas  et  spectaberis. — You  will  see  and 
be  seen. 

Spes  mea  Christus. — Christ  is  my  hope. 

Spolia  opima.— The  richest  body. 

Stans  pede  in  uno.  —  Standing  on  one 
foot. 

Statu  quo,  or  in  statu  quo. — ^In  the  same 
state. 

Stet. — Let  it  stand. 

Suaviter  in  modo,  fortiter  in  re. — Gentle 
in  manner,  resolute  in  deed. 

Sub'judice. — Under  consideration. 

Sub  rosd. — Under  the  rose ;  privately. 

Sub  silentio. — In  silence. 

Subpoena. — Under  a  penalty:  a  sum- 
mons to  attend  a  court  as  a  witness. 

Succedaneum. — A  substitute. 

Sui  generis.  —  Of  its  own  kind;  pecu- 
liar. 

Summum  bonum. — The  chief  good. 

Super  visum  corporis. — Upon  a  view  of 
the  body. 

Suppressio  veri,  suggestio  falsi. — A  sup- 
pression of  the  truth  is  the  suggestion 
of  a  falsehood. 

Supra. — Above. 

Suum  cuique. — Let  every  one  have  his 
own. 

Table  d'hdte. — An  ordinary  at  which  the 
master  of  the  hotel  presides. 

Tabula  rasa. — A  smooth  or  blank  tablet. 

Tsedium  vitse. — "Weariness  of  life. 

Tale  quale. — Such  as  it  is. 

Tant  mieux. — So  much  the  better. 

Tantpis. — So  much  the  worse. 

Tapis. — The  carpet. 

Tartuffe. — A  nickname  for  a  hypocritical 
devotee,  derived  from  the  principal 
character  in  Molidre's  comedy  so 
called. 

Tejudice. — You  may  judge. 

T-'mpora  muiantur,  et  nos  mutamur  in 
ilHs. — The  times  are  changed,  and  we 
ar*  changed  with  them. 


Tempus    edax    rerum. — Time    the    de- 

vourer  of  all  things. 
Tempus  fugit. — Time  flies. 
Tempus  omnia  revelat. — Time   reveals 

all  things. 
Teres    atque    rotundus. — Smooth    and 

round ;  polished  and  complete. 
Terrafirma. — Solid  earth ;  a  safe  footing. 
Terra  incognita. — An  unknown  country. 
Tertium  quid. — A  third  something;  a 

nondescript. 
Tete-d-tete. — A  conversation  between  two 

parties. 
Tirade. — A  tedious  and  bitter  harangue. 
Ton. — The  fashion. 
Torso. — The  fragmentary  trunk  of  a 

statue. 
Tot  homines,  quot  sententise. — So  many 

men,  so  many  minds. 
Totidem  verbis. — In  just  so  many  words. 
Toties  quoties. — As  often  as. 
Toto  coelo. — By  the  whole  heavens ;  dia- 
metrically opposite. 
Toto  corde. — With  the  whole  heart. 
Toujours  pret. — Always  ready. 
Tour  d  tour. — By  turns. 
Tout  bien  ou  rien. — The  whole  or  nothing. 
Tout  ensemble. — The  whole. 
Tria  juncta  in  uno. — Three  united  in 

one. 
Tu    quoque.    Brute! — And    thou    too, 

Brutus ! 
Tuebor. — I  will  defend. 
Tutto  e  buono  che  vien  da  Dio. — All  is 

good  which  comes  from  God. 
Tuum  est. — It  is  your  own. 

Ubi  ju^  incertum,  ibi  jus  nullum. — 
Where  the  law  is  uncertain,  there  is 
no  law. 

ITbi  libertas,  ibi  patria. — Where  liberty 
dwells,  there  is  my  country. 

TJbi  supra. — ^Where  above  mentioned. 

Ultima  ratio  regum.  —  The  last  argu- 
ment of  kings;  military  weapons; 
war. 

Ultima  Thule. — The  utmost  boundary 
or  limit. 

Ultimatum. — A  final  answer  or  decision. 

Un  bel  esprit. — A  wit ;  a  virtuoso. 

Un  sot  d  triple  Uage. — An  egregious 
blockhead. 

Und  voce.  —  With  one  voice;  unani- 
mously. 


28 


326 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


Unique. — Singiilar ;  the  only  one  of  its 

kind. 
Usque  ad  nauseam. — To  disgust. 
Usus  loquendi. — Usage  in  speaking. 
Ut  infra. — As  below. 
Uti  possidetis. — As  you  possess;  state 

of  present  possession. 
Utile  dulci. — Utility  with  pleasurj. 

Vade-mecum. — Go  with  me;  a  constant 
companion. 

Vse  victus. — Woe  to  the  vanquished ! 

Vale. — Farewell. 

Valet-de-chambre. — A  servant  who  assists 
his  master  in  dressing. 

Varix  lectiones. — Various  readings. 

Veluti  in  speculum. — As  in  a  mirror. 

Fern,  vidi,  vici. — I  came,  I  saw,  I  con- 
quered. 

Verbatim  et  literatim. — Word  for  word 
and  letter  for  letter. 

Verhum  sat  sapienti. — A  word  is  enough 
for  a  wise  man. 

Verdad  es  ver'de. — Truth  is  green. 

Veritas  vincit. — Truth  conquers. 

Versus. — Against;  toward. 

Vertu,  Virtu. — Virtue;  taste;  art;  skill. 

Veto.—l  forbid. 

Vi  et  armis. — By  force  and  arms. 

Vid. — By  the  way  of. 

Via  media. — A  middle  course. 

Vice. — In  the  room  of. 

Vice  ve7'sd. — The  terms  being  ex- 
changed; reversely. 

Vide. — See. 

Vide  et  crede. — See  and  believe. 

Vide  ut  supra. — See  as  above. 

Videlicet. — To  wit ;  namely. 

Videttes. — Sentinels  on  horseback. 

Vignette. — A  name  given  to  slight  en- 
gravings with  which  books,  bank- 
notes, &c.  are  ornamented. 

Vincit  amor  patrise. — Love  of  country 
prevails. 

Vinculum  matrimonii. — The  bond  of 
marriage. 


Virtuoso.  —  One  skilled  in  matters  of 
taste  or  art. 

Virtute  officii. — By  virtue  of  office. 

Vis  inertise. — Inert  power ;  the  tendency 
of  every  body  to  remain  at  rest. 

Vis  medicatrix  naturse. — The  healing 
tendency  of  nature. 

Vis  poetica. — Poetic  genius. 

Vis  vitse. — The  vigour  of  life 

Vis-d-vis. — Face  to  face. 

Vita  hrevis,  ars  longa. — Life  is  short, 
and  art  is  long. 

Vivd  voce. — By  word  of  mouth ;  by  the 
living  voice. 

Vivant  rex  et  regina. — Long  live  the 
king  and  queen. 

Vivat  regina. — Long  live  the  queen. 

Vivat  respuhlica. — Live  the  republic. 

Vive  la  bagatelle. — Success  to  trifling. 

Vive  la  reine. — Long  live  the  queen. 

Vive  Vempereur. — Long  live  the  em- 
peror. 

Vive  le  roi. — Long  live  the  king. 

Vive  Vimperatrice. — Long  live  the  em- 
press. 

Vive,  vale. — Farewell,  and  be  happy. 

Voild  tout. — That's  all. 

Voild  une  autre  chose. — That's  quite  a 
different  matter. 

Volens  etpotens. — Willing  and  able. 

Volga  gran  bestia. — The  mob  is  a  great 
beast. 

Vox,  et  prseterea  nihil. — A  voice,  and 
nothing  more. 

Vox  populi,  vox  Dei. — The  people's  voice 
is  God's  voice. 

Vox  stellarum. — The  voice  of  the  stars : 
applied  to  almanacs. 

Vulgo. — Vulgarly ;  commonly. 

Vulnus  immedicabile. — An  irreparable 
Injury. 

Vultus  est  index  animi. — The  counte- 
nance is  the  index  of  the  mind. 

Zonam  solvere. — To  loose  the  virgin 
zone. 


wmm 


MP 


INDEX. 


Abbreviated  syllables,  13. 

Abbreviations,  list  of,  299-311. 

Accented  letters,  56. 

Accents  and  asjnrates,  Greek,  85,  86. 

Hebrew,  92-94. 

Acids  used  in  making  paper  spoil  the 
effect  of  ink,  255. 

Adams,  Isaac,  inventor  of  the  bed-and- 
platen  power-press,  212. 

Adams  press,  directions  for  putting  up 
an.  236-244. 

illustrated,  213. 

Adams's,  Seth,  job-press,  220. 

Admiration,  sign  of,  51. 

Agate  type,  specimen  of,  43. 

Alcfrid,  Runic  memorial  of,  75. 

Almanac,  first  book  printed  in  the 
Middle  Colonies,  15. 

Alphabet,  Anglo-Saxon,  77. 

English,  47. 

German,  86 

Greek,  84, 

Hebrew,  90. 

Runes,  72-76. 

Alterations  in  a  proof  justly  charge- 
able, 183,  184,  192. 

not  allowable  in  reprints  of  old 

and  standard  authors,  181. 

Amber  ink,  how  to  produce,  266. 

Ambiguous  and  compound  words  to  be 
set  uniformly,  181. 

American  job  presses  unrivalWd,  220. 

type,  superior  quality  of,  21. 

Weekly  Mercury,  third  news- 
paper in  America,  15. 

Ancient  ornaments,  exquisite  and  cu- 
rious, 14. 

press,  clumsy,  210. 

typographical  peculiarities,  13. 

Anglo-Saxon  characters,  how  originated, 
40. 

alphabetical  table  of,  77. 

cases  for,  78,  79. 

Lord's  Prayer  in,  40. 

runes,  table  of,  74. 

Apostrophe,  how  used,  52. 


Applegath  and  Cowper,  improvers  of 

the  cylinder  press,  214. 
Apprentice,  how  to  instruct  an,  104. 
must  be  punctual,  obedient,  ana 

courteous,  105. 

qualifications  required  in  an,  103. 

ridiculous  practices  to  be  avoided 

by,  104. 
Apprentices,  advice  to,  119, 120. 
Arithmetical  figures,  when  introduced, 

59. 
Article,  the  indefinite,  rule  for  using, 

277. 
Ascending  letters,  48. 
Asterisk,  use  of,  55. 
Astronomical  signs,  62,  63. 
Authors,  detention  of  proofs  by,  184. 

hints  to,  192, 193. 

impatience  of,  184. 

Backing  long  or  short  pages,  115. 
Baine,  John,  sets  up  a  type-foundry  in 

Philadelphia,  17. 
Bay  Psalm-Book  first  book  printed  at 

Cambridge,  14. 
Bearers  on  hand-presses,  how  prepared, 

230,  256,  257. 
Bed-and-platen  jobber,  cut  of  Hoe's,  221. 

power-press,  cut  of,  213. 

invented  ])y  Isaac  Adams,  212. 

Bewcastle  cross,  Runic  inscription  on, 

75. 
Bible,  first,  printed  at  Mentz  in  1450, 12. 
German,  printed  in  Germantown, 

17. 

printed  in  Iceland  in  1584, 13. 

quarto,  in  standing  type,  23. 

Bill  of  type,  46. 

Binny,  Archibald,  first  successful  founder 

in  Philadelphia,  17. 

improver  of  the  type-mould,  17, 30. 

Blaeu,  Willem  Jansen,  early  inventor 

of  a  press,  210. 
Blankets  for  wood-cut  printing,  260. 

India-rubber,  243,  245. 

thick  paper,  246. 

327 


328 


INDEX. 


Blankets,  Welsh  flannel,  245. 

•■  when  to  be  used,  228. 

Blanking,  remarks  concerning,  114. 

Bleaching  powders  deleterious,  255. 

Blue  ink,  how  to  make,  264,  266. 

Bodkin,  how  to  use  the,  191, 192. 

Books,  cheapening  of,  due  to  steam- 
presses,  216. 

early,  printed  in  Gothic  charac- 
ters, 14. 

first,  printed  on  one  side  of  the 

leaf  only,  10. 

Borders,  69. 

Boston  Gazette,  second  newspaper  pub- 
lished in  America,  15. 

News- Letter,    first     newspaper 

published  in  America,  15. 

Boulogne,  press  introduced  in  1462, 13. 

Bourgeois,  specimen  of,  43. 

Boxwood  liable  to  warp,  261. 

Braces,  use  of,  64. 

Bracket,  how  used,  54. 

Bradford,  William,  first  printer  in  the 
Middle  Colonies,  15. 

Brass  rules,  remarks  concerning,  69. 

Break-lines  improperly  driven  over,  114. 

should  never  begin  a  page,  115. 

Brevier,  specimen  of,  43. 

Brilliant,  smallest  type  in  America,  41. 

specimen  of,  4;3. 

British  founders  reject  American  cast- 
ing-machines, 20. 

Bronstrup  press,  represented,  311. 

Bronze  printing,  how  executed,  263. 

Brown  ink,  how  to  produce,  266. 

Bruce,  David  and  George,  founders  in 
New  York,  19. 

Bruce,  Jr.,  David,  type-casting  machine 
invented  by,  20. 

Bullock,  William,  printing  machine  in- 
vented by,  219. 

Bundle  of  paper  described,  272. 

Cabinet  of  cases,  illustrated,  209. 
Cambridge,  first  press  in  North  Ame- 
rica at,  14. 
Cancelled  figures,  59. 
Capital,  good  character  is,  120. 
Capital  letters,  47,  48. 
Card-printing,  directions  for,  262. 
Carey,  Mathew,  23. 
Cases,  American  plan  of  Roman,  106, 107. 

proposed  improvement  on,  108. 

German,  82,  83. 

Greek,  88,  89. 

Hebrew,  95-97. 

labour-saving  rule,  71. 

music,  100-102. 

number  of,  to  a  fount,  110. 

Saxon,  78,  79. 

Caslon,  William,  16. 
Cassie  quires,  why  so  called,  272. 
Casting  off  copy,  methods  of,  199  202. 
Catch-words  first  used  at  Venice,  14. 


Catch-words  in  titles,  how  to  be  set,  116. 

Caxton,  William,   introduces    printing 
into  England,  13. 

Chalcography,  inventor  of,  28. 

Chromo-lithography,  26. 

Cicero,  French  and  German  name  for 
Pica,  42. 

Circular  quadrates,  67-69. 

Clicker,  or  maker-up,  duties  of,  202-204. 

Clymer,  George,  inventor  of  the  Colum- 
bian press,  211. 

Colon,  use  of,  50. 

Colour,  unifoMuity  in,  234,  257. 

Coloured  inks,  how  to  make,  264,  265. 

printing,  instructions  for,  263-265. 

Colours,  contrast  of,  266. 

how  to  multiply,  266. 

how  to  use  dry,  265. 

Columbian  press,  illustrated,  211. 

introduced  into  England,  212. 

Combination  borders,  69. 

Comma,  use  of,  50. 

Commercial  post  paper,  size  of,  275. 

signs,  60. 

Companionships,  how  managed,  204-208. 

Composing,  directions  for,  111,  112. 

how  to  avoid  errors  in,  112. 

position  in,  109. 

Composition  rollers,  to  make,  223-225. 

how  to  wash,  224. 

melting-kettle  for,  223. 

Compositors,  differences  in,  196. 

ironical  rules  for,  118, 119. 

rules  to  be  observed  by,  208,  209. 

Compound  words,  53. 

Contents,  rules  for,  117. 

Continuous  sheet,  printing  from  a,  219. 

Contrast  of  colours,  266. 

Conversation   improper  in  a  printing- 
office,  189, 190. 

Copy,  casting  off,  199-20?. 

to  be  carefully  prepared,  183. 

takes  of,  should  l)e  small,  197. 

Copyright,  form  of  notice  of,  293. 

• —  how  renewed,  293. 

how  to  secure  a,  293. 

persons  entitled  to,  292. 

subjects  of,  292. 

term  of.  293. 

Cork  bearers,  2.30. 

Corpus,  German  name  for  Long  Primer, 
43. 

Correcting  in  the  metal,  189-193. 

directions  for,  191, 192. 

rules  for,  in  a  companionship,  206. 

Coster,  Laurentius,  discoverer  of  prints 
ing,  9-12. 

prints  from  wooden  type,  10. 

Counting  out  sheets,  275. 

Courtesy,  importance  of,  105. 

Creases  and  wrinkles  in  paper,  how  to 

remove,  234. 
Cross-bar,  how  to  avoid  spiinging,  127. 
Crown  paper,  size  of,  275. 


INDEX. 


329 


Cut-in  notes,  how  adjusted,  113, 114. 
Cuts,  how  to  make  ready,  258-262. 
Cylinder  ^ress,  invention  of  the,  214. 

■ presses,  making  ready  on,  244- 

253. 

Dagger,  or  obelisk,  use  of,  55. 

Dash,  use  of,  51. 

Dates,  method  of,  during  the  French 
Republic,  58. 

Dayo,  John,  Anglo-Saxon  types  first 
cut  by,  40. 

Daye,  Stephen,  first  printer  in  North 
America,  14. 

Dedications,  how  displayed,  116. 

position  of,  116. 

Degener's  job-presses,  220. 

Delicate  impression,  how  to  produce,  260. 

Demy  paper,  size  of,  275. 

Derivation  of  English  words,  283-285. 

Descending  letters,  48. 

Diamond  type,  specimen  of,  43. 

Diphthongs,  Greek,  85. 

Distributing,  directions  for,  110. 

how  to  wash  matter  for,  110. 

pernicious  effects  from  heating 

type  for.  111. 

proper  times  for,  111. 

Dividing  words,  rules  for,  52-54. 

Double  cylinder  printing  machine,  cut 
of,  215. 

imperial  paper,  size  of,  275. 

letters,  48. 

medium  paper,  size  of,  275. 

super-royal  paper,  size  of,  275. 

Drawer  of  an  Adams  press,  material  for 
covering,  243. 

Drawing  paper,  how  to  be  wet,  227. 

Dry  colours,  how  to  use,  265,  266. 

Duck's-bill,  to  prevent  paper  from  slip- 
ping on  the  tympan,  257. 

Duodecimo,  or  twelves,  scheme  for  im- 
posing sheet  of,  144. 

the  same,  without  cutting,  145. 

the  same,  two  signatures,  146. 

half-sheet,  147. 

the  same,  without  cutting,  147. 

the  same,  from  the  centre,  148. 

sheet  of,  from  the  centre,  149. 

the  same,  long  way,  150,  151. 

one-third  of  a  sheet,  150, 151. 

two  half-sheets,  together,  152. 

half-sheet,  two  signatures.  153. 

Durandi  Rationale,  first  book  printed 
with  cast  metal  type,  12. 

Earl  Stanhope's  printing-press,  211. 

Earliest  printing-press,  210. 

Eighteens,  scheme  for  imposing  half- 
sheet  of,  145. 

the  same,  with  two  blanks,  145. 

sheet  of,  folded  together,  146, 147. 

■  the  same,  with  one   signature, 

146, 147. 


Eighteen!!,  scheme  for  imposing  sheet 
of,  with  two  signatures,  158, 159. 

the  same,  with  three  signatures, 

158,  159. 

half-sheet  of,  without  transposi- 
tion, 160. 

Electro-stereotj'ping,  24,  34. 

Electrotyping,  method  of,  24. 

Emerald  green,  266. 

Enamelled  card,  to  be  printed  dry,  262. 

English  type,  specimen  of,  42. 

Engraver's  proof  useful  to  a  pressman, 
262. 

Engravings,  copper,  28. 

how  to  print,. 259,  260. 

wood,  27. 

Epitaph,  printer's,  191. 

Errata,  list  of,  where  placed,  117. 

Errors  inevitable,  117. 

made  in  correcting  a  proof,  182. 

Even  impressions  on  a  hand-press,  how 
to  o])tain,  255-258. 

Exclamation,  sign  of,  51. 

Explanation  of  proof-reading  marks, 
188, 189. 

Explanations  of  technical  terms,  294- 
298. 

Faust,  John,  partner  of  Gutenberg, 
10-12. 

Figures,  arithmetical,  59. 

old-style,  59. 

scratched  or  cancelled.  59. 

Filling  the  standing  press,  274,  275. 

Fine  hand-presswork,  remarks  concern- 
ing, 253-258. 

Fine  printing,  character  of  ink  required 
for,  254,  255. 

paper  suitable  for,  228. 

why  difficult  in  the  United  States, 

255. 

Finiguerra,  Thomas,  discoverer  of  chal- 
cography, 28. 

Firefly  press,  Gordon's,  220. 

Flat  cap  paper,  size  of,  275. 

Flowers  and  Ixjrders,  remarks  on.  69. 

Fly  on  cylinder  presses,  how  to  be  set, 
253.  ^ 

Folio,  imposing  single  sheet  of,  129. 

two  sheets  quired,  130,  131. 

Folio  paper,  size  of,  275. 

Foolscap  paper,  dimensions  of,  275. 

Follow  copy,  the  compositor's  rule,  183. 

Foreign  words  and  phrases,  translated. 
312-326. 

Form,  how  to  make  ready  for  press, 
229-231. 

of  Warehouse  Book,  271. 

Forms,  directions  for  locking  up,  127,128 

how  to  impose,  121,  122. 

how  to  Avash,  235,  236. 

precautions  in  unlocking,  190 

Foreman,  duties  and  qualifications  of 
196-209. 


28* 


330 


INDEX. 


Forties,  scheme  for  imposing  lialf-sheet 
of,  170. 

Forty-eights,  scheme  for  imposing  quar- 
ter-sheet of,  with  two  signatures,  171. 

« the  same,  without  cutting,  172. 

half-sheet  of,  171. 

the  same,  three  signatures,  172. 

quarter-sheet  of,  173. 

Foul  proof  a  grieA'ous  fault,  189. 

Founders,  English,  ancient  regulations 
concerning,  16. 

Fount  of  letter,  complete,  described,  47. 

Founts,  irregularities  of,  47. 

Full  point,  use  of,  50. 

Furniture,  how  to  make  up,  124. 

Fractions,  59. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  attempts  type- 
founding,  17. 

James,  establishes  the  New  Eng- 
land Courant,  15. 

Franklin  presses,  Gordon's,  220. 

cut  of,  221. 

Friars,  how  to  obviate,  234. 

Frisket,  directions  for  preparing,  229. 

catch  of,  how  to  place,  230. 

Gaillarde,  French  term  for  Bourgeois 

type,  43. 
Gallows,  how  to  be  placed,  230. 
Game  of  Chess,  first  book  printed  in 

England  by  Caxton,  13. 
Ged,  William,  inventor  of  stereotvping, 

21. 
Geinsfleisch,  servant  of  Laurentius,  ab- 
sconds and  settles  at  Mentz,  11. 
Geometrical  signs,  60-62. 
German  alphabet,  80. 

plan  of  cases  for,  82,  83. 

similar  letters  elucidated,  80,  81. 

Runic  alphabet,  73,  74. 

Germantow^n,  first  quarto  Bible  printed 

at,  16. 

foundry  at,  16. 

Giving  out  book  paper  to  wet,  272. 

paper  for  jobs,  272,  273. 

Glover,  Jesse,  introduces  printing  into 

Cambridge,  Mass.,  14, 
Gold  preparation,  how  to  use,  266. 

printing,  how  practised,  262, 263. 

size  for  gold  printing,  262. 

Good  habits  inculcated,  103, 105, 119, 120. 
Good  presswoi-k.  conditions  for  securing, 

253. 
Gordon's  job-presses,  220,  221. 
Gothic  characters,  early  books  printed 

ia,  14. 
Gradation  of  types,  44. 
Grant  Thorburn,  benevolence  of,  214. 
Great  Primer,  specimen  of,  42. 
Greek  accents  and  aspirates,  85-87. 

alphabetical  table  of,  84. 

■ letters,  numerical  value  of,  56,84. 

ligatures  now  discardQd,  84. 

numeral  letters,  table  of,  56. 


Greek,  plan  of  cases  for,  88,  89. 

rules  for  composing,  87. 

types,  74. 

Green  ink,  how  to  make,  266. 

Gros  Remain,  French  title  for   Great 

Primer,  42. 
Guillemet's  quotation  marks,  50. 
Gutenberg,  11. 

Gutter-sticks,  directions  for  cutting,  128. 
Gypsum  in  paper,  effects  of,  255. 

Haerlem,  the  birthplace  of  printing,  9. 
Hand-mould  improved  by  Binny,  17. 
old,  still  used  in  Britain,  20. 


Hand-press,  how  to  prepare  impression 
on,  255-258. 

how  to  overlay  on,  256. 

Hand-press,  bearers  used  on,  256,  257. 

Hand-presswork,  fine,  how  to  produce, 
253-258. 

Handwriting,  erroneous  notion  con- 
cerning, 202. 

Hanging  pages,  how  to  rectify,  190. 

up  paper  to  dry,  273. 

Hansard's  receipt  for  making  rollers, 
224,  225. 

Hard  roller  best  for  fine  work,  246. 

Head-lines,  how  displayed,  113. 

Heap  of  paper,  how  to  treat,  230. 

Heated  type,  pernicious  effects  from 
distributing,  111. 

Hebrew  accents,  92-94. 

alphabetical  table  of,  90. 

letters,  numerical  value  of,  90. 

letters  of  similar  appearance,  91. 

masoretic  points  or  vowels,  92. 

method  of  composing,  91. 

plan  of  cases  with  points,  96,  97. 

lower  case  without  points,  95. 

scheme  for  imposing  8vo  sheet 

of,  140,  141. 

spacing  letters,  91. 

Hinderanfies  to  fine  printing  in  Ame- 
rica, 255. 

Hints  honoured  in  the  breach,  118. 

Hoe  &  Co.'s  cylinder  presses,  214-219. 

Hoe,  Richard  M.,  inventor  of  type-ro- 
A'olving  printing  machine,  216.'^ 

Hoe,  Robert,  account  of,  214-216. 

Hollow  quadrates,  use  of,  66. 

Horn-Book,  illustration  of,  8. 

Hurried  work,  how  to  expedite,  202. 

Hyphen,  how  employed,  52. 

not  used  by  ancient  printers,  13. 

Imperial  and  half  paper,  size  of,  275. 

paper,  dimensions  of,  275. 

Imposing  forms,  directions  for,  121, 122. 
Imposing  in  companionships,  rules  for, 
206,  207. 

memoranda  concerning,  128. 

abstract  tit]  e-deeds,  129. 

Folio,  single  sheet,  129. 

two  sheets,  quired,  130,  131. 


INDEX, 


331 


Imposing,  scheme    for,   Quarto,   com- 

.  mon,  sheet  of,  132, 133. 

for  music-books,  132, 133. 

two  half  sheets,  together,  134, 135. 

half-sheet,  broad  w^ay,  134, 135. 

Octavo,  sheet  of,  136, 137. 

the  broad  way,  136, 137. 

half-sheet,  138. 

two  half-sheets,  together,  138, 139. 

two  quarters,  together,  138, 139. 

sheet,  mixed,  140, 141. 

^ —  Octavo,  sheet  of  Hebrew,  140, 141. 

sheet,  from  the  centre,  142, 143. 

half-sheet,  from  the  centre,  142. 

two  quarters,  from  the  centre,  143. 

Duodecimo,  or  12mo,  sheet,  144. 

the  same,  without  cutting,  145. 

the  same,  two  signatures,  146. 

half-sheet,  147. 

the  same,  without  cutting,  147. 

the  same,  from  the  centre,  148. 

sheet  of,  from  the  centre,  149. 

the  same,  long  waj',  150, 151. 

one-third  of  a  sheet,  150, 151. 

two  half-sheets,  together,  152. 

half-sheet,  two  signatures,  153. 

Sixteens,  half-sheet  of,  153. 

sheet  of,  154. 

Eighteens,  half-sheet  of,  155. 

the  same,  with  two  blanks,  155. 

sheet  of,  folded  together,  156, 157. 

sheet  of,  one  signature,  156, 157. 

the  same,  two  signatures,  158, 159. 

sheet,  three  signatures,  158, 159. 

half-sheet  of,  without  transposi- 
tion, 160. 

Twenties,  half-sheet  of,  with  two 

signatures,  160. 

sheet  of,  161. 

Twenty-Fours,  half-sheet  of,  162. 

sheet  of,  1625.163. 

half-sheet  of,  sixteens  way,  163. 

half-sheet  of  long,  164. 

half-sheet,  two  signatures,  164. 

TiiiRTY-Twos,  half-sheet  of,  165. 

sheet  of,  166, 167. 

the  same,  two  signatures,  166, 167. 

half-sheet,  two  signatures,  168. 

half-sheet  of,  mixed,  168. 

Thirty-Sixes,  half-sheet  of,  169. 

the  same,  without  cutting,  169. 

the  same,  two  signatures,  170. 

Forties,  half-sheet  of,  170. 

Forty-Eights,  quarter-sheet  of, 

with  two  signatures,  171. 

the  same,  without  cutting,  172. 

half-sheet  of,  171. 

the  same,  three  signatures,  172. 

Sixty-Fours,  quarter-sheet,  174. 

the  same,  two  signatures,  173. 

the  same,  mixed,  174. 

half-sheet  of,  175. 

Seventy-Twos,  half-sheet  of,  176. 

Ninety-Sixes,  half-sheet  of,  177. 


Imposing,  scheme  for.  One   Hundreb 
and  Twenty-Eights,  half-sheet,  178. 

Impression  on  cylinder  presses,  how  to 
regulate,  248-253. 

Indenting  paragraphs,  rule  for,  114. 

Index,  directions  for  preparing  copy  of, 
115. 

rule  for  setting,  115. 

where  placed,  115. 


India  paper  suitable  for  overlays,  259. 

India-rubber  cloth,  good  qualities  of, 
243,  245. 

Ink-block,  how  to  be  placed,  223. 

Ink,  coloured,  264,  265. 

requires  a  hard  roller,  246. 

for  cylinder  presses,  246. 

for  fine  work,  indispensable  qua- 
lities of,  254,  255. 

how  to  remove  surplus  from  the 

roller,  233. 

how  to  produce  amber,  266. 

blue,  264-266. 

brown,  266. 

green,  266. 

lilac,  266. 

pink,  265. 

red,  264,  265. 

scarlet,  265. 

Ink-fountain,  how  to  manage,  247. 
Interleaving    necessary,  in  fine    press- 
work,  257. 

Interrogation,  sign  of,  51. 
Ironical  rules  for  compositors,  118, 119. 
Italic  letter,  invention  of,  39. 
abuse  of,  40. 

Job  presses,  American,  uumi!  i)a><i(l,  220. 
varieties  of,  220,  221. 


Jobs,  making  margin  for,  127. 

Johnson,  Lawrence,  type-fou<ider  in 
Philadelphia,  17. 

Johnson,  William  M.,  invents  a  type- 
casting machine,  20. 

Journeymen,  idle,  16. 

Justification,  accurate,  absolutely  essen- 
tial, 113. 

Kerned  letters,  48. 

Kinsley,  Dr.,  invents  a  cylinder  press, 

214. 
Knowledge,  progress  of,  accelerated  by 

steam-presses,  216. 
Konig,  Frederick,  inventor  of  the  cylin 

der  press,  214. 

Labour-saving  brass  rule,  70. 

plan  of  case  for,  71 . 

quotation  furniture,  66. 

rule,  33. 

Laurentius  Coster,  9-12. 
Laying  a  fount  of  type,  directions  for,  109 
pages,  123. 


Leads  described,  ( 
Letter  paper,  size  of,  275 , 


332 


INDEX. 


Letters,  accented,  56. 

ascending,  48. 

— descending,  48. 

double,  48. 

kerned,  48. 

long,  47. 

numeral,  56. 

short,  48. 

two-line,  65. 

Ley-brush,  how  to  be  made,  236. 
Ley  not  to  be  used  on  wood-cuts,  261. 
Ley-trough  described,  235,  236. 
Lifting  pages,  123. 
Lightning  press,  Hoe's,  216-219. 

illustrated,  217. 

Lilac  ink,  how  to  make,  266. 
List  of  abbreviations,  299-311. 
Lithographic  chalk  and  ink,  25. 

stone,  24. 

Lithography,  discovery  of,  24. 

practice  of,  24-27. 

Locking  up  forms,  127, 128. 
Long  letters,  47. 
Long  Primer,  specimen  of,  43. 
Lord's  Prayer  in  Anglo-Saxon,  40. 
Lower-case  sorts,  48. 

Machine  casting,  19. 

Machine-press  of  Isaac  Adams,  212,  213. 

Frederick  Konig,  214. 

Applegath  and  Cowper,  214. 

Richard  M.  Hoe's,  216-219. 

William  Bullock's,  219. 

Mackles,  how  to  remedy,  234. 

Making  margin,  125-127. 

for  jobs,  127. 

Making  ready  a  form,  directions  for, 
228-231. 

on  cylinder  presses,  244-253. 

wood-cuts,  directions  for,  258-262. 

Making  register,  directions  for,  231. 

Making  up  furniture,  124. 

in  companionships,  205. 

letter  and  furniture  in  com- 
panionships, 205. 

Manutius,  Aldus,  49. 

Margin,  how  to  make,  125-127. 

on  cylinder  presses,  247. 

Masoretic  points,  92. 

Mathematical  signs,  60-62. 

Matrices,  copper,  20,  30. 

electro  typed,  20. 

Mittel,  German  name  for  English  type, 
42. 

Measure  of  stick,  how  to  make  by  ems, 
111. 

Mecom,  Benjamin,  21. 

Medium  paper,  size  of,  275. 

Melting-kettle,  description  of,  223. 

Metal  cut-face  types  invented  by  Geins- 
fleisch  and  Gutenberg,  12. 

Metal  rules,  64. 

types  first  cast  by  Peter  Schoeflfer, 

of  Mentz,  12. 


Middle  tint  to  be  preserved,  259. 
Minion  type,  specimen  of,  43. 
Music,  specimens  of,  98. 
Music,  directions  for  composing,  99. 
plan  of  cases  for,  100-102. 

Newspapers,  number  of,  printed  in  the 
United  States  in  1801  and  1810, 18. 

New  types,  how  to  prevent  them  from 
adhering  together,  109. 

New  York  Gazette,  first  newspaper  pub- 
lished there,  15. 

Nicholson,  William,  suggester  of  the 
cylinder  press,  214. 

Ninety-sixes,  to  impose  half-sheet,  177. 

Nonpareil  type,  specimen  of,  43, 

Norse-Runic  alphabet,  73,  74. 

Note  paper,  size  of,  275. 

Notes,  proper  size  of  type  for,  113. 

cut  in,  how  arranged,  114. 

Numeral  letters,  Gothic,  58. 

Greek,  56. 

Roman,  57,  58. 

Numerical  value  of  Greek  letters,  56, 84. 

Hebrew  letters,  90. 

Octavo,  scheme  for  imposing  sheet  of, 
136, 137. 

sheet  of,  the  broad  way,  136, 137. 

two  half-sheets,  together,  138, 139. 

sheet,  mixed,  140, 141. ' 

half-sheet,  138. 

two  quarters,  together,  138, 139. 

sheet  of  Hebrew,  140, 141. 

sheet  of,  from  the  centre,  142, 143. 

half-sheet  of,  do.,  142. 


two  quarter-sheets,  do.,  143. 

Old  English  letter  used  by  the  early 
printers,  38. 

Old-style  figures,  advantages  of,  59. 

Old  works,  no  license  of  alteration 
allowable  in  reprinting,  181. 

One  hundred  and  twenty-eights,  scheme 
for  imposing  half-sheet  of,  178. 

Ornaments,  ancient,  exquisite  and  cu- 
rious, 14. 

Orthography,  hints  on,  277-291. 

uniformity  in,  181. 

Overlaying  on  cylinder  presses,  251,  252. 

Overlaying  on  hand-presses,  256. 

Overrunning,  proper  method  of,  192. 

Overseer,  duties  of,  196-209. 

Over-sheets,  rules  for  giving  out,' 272. 

Packet  note  paper,  size  of,  275. 
Pages,  how  to  tie  up,  122. 

how  to  lift,  123. 

how  to  lay,  123. 

Paper-bank,  how  to  be  placed,  230. 
Paper  for  jobs,  rule  for  giving  out,  272. 

instructions  for  wetting,  226-228. 

qualities  of  good,  255. 

quantity  required  for  a  book,  276. 

sizes  of,  275. 


INDEX, 


333 


Paper  suitable  for  fine  printing,  228. 
Paragon  type,  so  called  by  printers  in 

aU  countries,  41. 
Paragraph. mark,  how  used,  55. 
Paragraphs,  authors'  irregularities  in 

making,  114. 

rule  for  indenting,  114. 

should   be   plainly   marked   in 

copy,  114. 
Parchment  tympans,  226. 
Parenthesis,  use  of,  54. 
Paris,  printing  introduced  in  1464, 13. 
Pasteboard  tympan  for  a  cylinder  press, 

advantages  of,  244. 
Pearl  type,  specimen  of,  43. 
Penn,  William,  promotes  printing   in 

Pennsylvania,  15. 
Period,  use  of.  50. 
Petit  and  Jungfer,  German  names  of 

Brevier,  43. 
Petit  Romain,  French  name  of  Long 

Primer,  43. 
Phrases,  foreign,  translated,  312-326. 
Pica,  specimen  of,  42. 

—  the  standard  type,  41. 

Planetary  signs,  62,  63. 

Planing  machine,  stereotype,  invented 

by  David  Bruce,  19. 
Plate  paper,  directions  for  wetting,  227. 
Points,  how  to  arrange,  229. 
Polyglot  founders,  16. 
Position  in  composing,  109. 
Prefaces,  rules  concerning,  117. 
Press-Book,  form  of,  198. 
Press  arbitrarily  restricted,  210. 

history  of  invention  of,  210-221. 

old  common,  210. 

to  print   and   number   railroad 

tickets  and  coupons,  220. 
Pressing  sheets,  mode  of,  274,  275. 
Pressman  should  examine  every  sheet 

as  printed,  234. 
Pressmen,  rules  and  remedies  for,  233- 

235. 
should  study  fine  specimens  of 

printing,  255. 
Presswork,  requisites  for  producing  fine, 

253-258. 
Picks  in  types,  how  to  remove,  233,  234. 

in  wood-cuts,  how  to  takeout,  260. 

Pink  ink,  how  to  produce,  265. 
Prima,  181. 

Printed  sheets,  how  treated,  273-275. 
Printing,  discovery  of,  9. 

extension  of,  13. 

in  bronzes,  263. 

in  colours,  263-265. 

in  gold,  directions  for,  262. 

introduced  into  America,  14. 

introduced  into  Boulogne,  Paris, 

Rome,  13. 

manner  of  discovery,  10. 

Printing-machine,  type-revolving,  216- 

219. 


Printing-offices,  rules  to  be  observed  in, 
208,  209. 

Printing-press,  earliest,  210. 

invention  of  the,  210-221. 

when  set  up  at  Boston,  14. 

Willem  Jansen  Blaeu's,  210. 

Ramage's,  211. 

Earl  Stanhope's,  211. 

George  Clymer's,  211. 

Peter  Smith's,  212. 

Samuel  Rust's,  212. 

Isaac  Adams's,  212. 

Frederick  Konig's,  213. 

Richard  M.  Hoe's,  216. 

George  P.  Gordon's,  220. 

Railroad-ticket,  220. 

Proof-marks,  explanation  of,  188,  189, 

illustration  of,  186. 

Proof-reader,  author's  obligations  to  180 

duties  of  a,  181, 190. 

friendly  offices  of,  180. 

qualifications  of,  179-185. 

should  be  a  compositor,  179. 

Proof-readers,  caprices  of,  190. 

Proof-sheets,     alterations     in,    justly 
chargeable,  183, 184, 192. 

detained  by  authors,  184. 

errors  in  correcting,  182,  183. 

method  of  reading,  181, 182. 

plan  for  keeping  account  of,  182. 

remarks  concerning,  181. 

should  be  read  by  two  readers,  183. 

Proofs  of  engravings,  how  to  take,  261. 

Proper  names  should  be  plainly  written, 
192. 

Prussian  blue  ink,  264. 

Publishers'      interference     with      the 
printer's  province,  116. 

Pulling,  directions  for,  231-233,  258. 

Punches,  description  and  cost  of,  20,  30. 

Punctuality  indispensable  in  an  appren- 
tice, 105. 

Punctuation,  amending  of,  should  be 
confined  to  one  reader,  183. 

and  orthography  to  be  uniform 


throughout  a  book,  181. 

points  of   later  invention  than 

printing,  49. 

variations  in  use  of,  49. 

whims  of  authors,  49. 

Wilson's  Treatise  on,  50,  53. 

Putting  up  an  Adams  press,  instruc- 
tions for,  236-244. 

Quadrates,  circular,  illustrated  and  de- 
scribed, 67-69. 

directions  for  composing,  67-69. 

hollow,  illustrated,  66. 

Quantity  of  paper  required  for  a  thou- 
sand copies,  276. 

Quarto,  scheme  for  imposing,  132, 133. 

the  broad  way  for  music,  132, 133. 

two  half-sheets,  together,  134, 135. 

half-sheet,  the  broad  way,  1.34, 135 


334 


INDEX, 


Quires,  cassie,  of  what  made  up,  272. 
Quitting  woi-k,  precautions  to  bo  used 

by  the  pressman  in,  235, 
Quoins,  proper  form  of,  127. 

how  to  unlock,  128. 

Quotation  furniture  illustrated,  66. 
Quotation  marks,  50. 
Quotations,  broad  and  narrow,  65. 

Railroad-ticket  printing-machine,  220. 

Ramage,  Adam,  211. 

Reading-boy,  181. 

Receipts  for  making  rollers,  223-225. 

Red  ink,  how  to  make,  264,  265. 

References,  use  of,  54,  55. 

Register,  how  to  make,  231. 

Regulations  for  a  printing-office,  208, 209. 

Reprints  of  standard  authors  not  to 
vary  from  the  original,  181. 

Revise,  185. 

Revise  sheet  necessary,  231. 

!Riding,  how  to  prevent,  264. 

Roller-boy,  233. 

Roller-handle,  how  to  lie  when  used,  223. 

how  to  check,  223. 

Roller,  hard,  best  for  fine  work,  246. 

Roller-mould,  directions  for  using,  224. 

Roller,  soft,  required  for  posters  and 
old  type,  246. 

Roller-stand,  how  to  set  up,  222,  223. 

Rollers,  composition,  how  made.  223-225. 

for  hand-presses,  how  to  keep.  257. 

hand-press,  224. 

precautio5][S  in  using,  224. 

to  be  adapted  to  style  of  work,  246. 

when  in  working  order,  224. 

Roman  letter,  invention  of,  28. 

deserving  general  adoption,  39. 

Rome,  printing  introduced  in  1466, 13. 

Ronaldson,  James,  founder  in  Phila- 
delphia. 17. 

Royal-and-half  paper,  size  of,  275. 

paper,  size  of,  275. 

Ruggles's  job  presses,  220. 

Rules,  brass,  69. 

labour-saA'ing,  illustrated,  70. 

plan  of  case  for,  71. 

Rules  and  remedies  for  pressmen,  233- 
235. 

for  compositors,  ii'onical,  118,119. 

Runes,  earliest  alphabets  of  the  Teutons 
and  Goths,  72. 

Runic  alphabets,  72-76. 

inscription  on  Bewcastle  cross,  75. 

Rust,  Samuel,  inventor  of  the  Washing- 
ton press,  212. 

Saur  (or  Sower),  Christopher,  first  Ame- 
rican type-founder,  16. 

prints  the  first  quarto  Bible,  16. 

Scarlet  ink,  how  to  make,  265. 

Schedule  for  companionships,  206. 

Schoeffer,  Peter,  inventor  of  cast  metal 
types,  12. 


Semicolon,  invented  by  Aldus  Manu- 
tius,  49. 

use  of,  50. 

Senefelder,  Alois,  discoverer  of  litho- 
graphy, 24. 

Setting  fly  on  a  cylinder  press,  253. 

Setting  off,  how  to  prevent  ink  from,  257. 

Setting  tapes,  process  of,  253. 

Setting  up  a  Washington  press,  222. 

Setting  up  roller-stand,  222,  223. 

Seventy-twos,  scheme  for  imposing  half- 
sheet  of,  176. 

Shades  of  ink,  how  to  produce,  265. 

Sheets,  how  to  take  down  from  the 
poles,  273,  274. 

Short  letters,  48. 

Short  numbers  of  sheets,  allowance  for, 
272. 

Short  pages,  how  to  back,  115. 

Signatures,  table  of,  193-195. 

Signaturing,  remarks  concerning,  117. 

Signs,  astronomical,  62,  63. 

commercial,  60. 

mathematical,  60-62. 

medical,  63. 

Silk  tympan-covers,  225. 

Sitting  at  work  improper,  109. 

Sixtoens,  scheme  for  imposing  half-sheet 
of,  153. 

sheet  of,  154. 

Sixty-fours,  scheme  f©r  imposing  quar- 
ter-sheet of,  174, 

quarter-sheet  of,  with  two  signa- 
tures, 173. 

quarter-sheet  of,  mixed,  174. 

half-sheet  of,  175. 

Sizes  of  machine-made  paper,  275. 

Slovenly  copy,  censurable,  199. 

Slurring,  how  to  prevent,  234,  256. 

Small  capital  letters,  47,  48. 

Small  Pica,  specimen  of,  43. 

Smith,  George  Frederick,  founder'  in 
Philadelphia,  17. 

Smith,  Matthew,  press-maker,  214,  216. 

Smith,  Peter,  inventor  of  a  hand-press, 
212. 

Sorts,  upper  and  lower  case,  48. 

Sounds  of  German  letters,  81. 

Greek  letters,  84. 

Hebrew  letters,  90. 

Sower,  Christopher,  printer  and  founder 
in  Germantown,  16. 

Samuel,  founder  in  Baltimore,  18. 

Space-rules,  metal,  70. 

Spaces,  described,  64. 

various  sizes  of,  should  be  kept 

separate,'  110. 

Spacing,  remarks  on,  112. 

Spelling,  rules  for,  277-291. 

Spring  bearers,  230. 

Springing,  how  to  prevent  wood-cuts 
from,  258. 

Standing  press,  how  to  fill,  274,  275. 

Stanhope,  Earl,  press  invented  by,  211. 


.  INDEX, 


835 


star  Chamber,  regulations  of,  concern- 
ing English  founders,  16. 

St.Augustin,  French  and  Dutch  name 
for  English  type,  42. 

Stereotyp9  plates,  English,  imperfec- 
tions of,  23. 

how  to  underlay,  250. 

Stereotyping,  invention  of,  21. 

mode  of,  21-23,  36. 

Stower,  extract  from,  184. 

Superiors,  65. 

Super-royal  paper,  size  of,  275. 

Syllables,  abbreviated,  13. 

— 1^ how  to  divide,  62-64. 

Symbols,  absurd,  63. 

Table  of  paper  required  for  a  book,  276. 

proof-marks,  186. 

signatures,  193-195. 

Takes  of  copy  should  be  small,  197. 

Taking  copy  in  companionships,  204. 

Taking  down  sheets  when  dry,  273. 

Tapes,  how  to  set,  253. 

Taylor  (A.  B.)  &  Co.'s  cylinder  presses, 
214. 

Technical  terms  explained,  294-298. 

names  should  be  legibly  written, 

192. 

Tertia,  German  name  of  Great  Primer,  42. 

Thirty-sixes,  scheme  for  imposing  half- 
sheet  of,  169. 

•  half-sheet  of,  without  cutting,  169. 

the  same,with  two  signatures,  170. 

Thirty-twos,  scheme  for  imposing  half- 
sheet  of,  165. 

sheet  of,  166, 167. 

half-sheet,  two  signatures,  168. 

half-sheet  of,  mixed,  168. 

Thomas,  Isaiah,  9, 18. 

Tilloch,  Dr.  Alexander,  21. 

Tinted  paper,  coloured  ink  on,  268. 

Tintg,  neutral,  269. 

Title-deeds,  scheme  for  imposing,  129. 

Title-pages,  hints  for  setting,  116. 

reraafks  on,  115. 

Token-sheet,  purpose  of,  227. 

Tokens  explained,  272. 

Transposing  in  companionships,  rulfes 
for,  208. 

pages,  directions  for,  190. 

Turning  a  heap,  directions  for,  232. 

Turpentine,  spirits  of,  best  for  cleansing 
wood-cuts,  261. 

Twenties,  scheme  for  impeding  half- 
sheet  of,  with  two  signatures,  160. 

sheet  of,  161. 

Twenty-fours,  scheme  for  imposing  half- 
sheet  of,  162. 

sheet  of,  162, 163. 

half-sheet,  the  sixteens  way,  163. 

half-sheet  of  long,  164. 

half-sheet  of, without  cutting,  165. 

Two-line  letters,  how  used,  65. 

Tympan  suitable  for  cylinder  press,  244 


Tympans,  how  to  cover,  225. 
Tympan-sheet  for  an  Adams  press,  243, 

244. 
Tying  up  pages,  122. 
Type,  how  to  lay  a  fount  of,  109. 
Type-casting  machine,  description  of,  32. 

illustrated,  31. 

origination  of,  19. 

perfected  by  David  Bruce,  Jr.>  20. 

Type-founding  a  distinct  calling  in  the 

seventeenth  century,  16. 

early,  in  New  York,  17. 

early,  in  Philadelphia,  17. 

in  America,  16. 

in  Europe,  15. 

Type-foundries  in  the  United  States,  20. 
Type-foundry,  first  American,  at  Ger- 

mantown,  Pennsylvania,  16. 

walk  over,  28-37. 

Type-metal,  30. 

Type-revolving  printing  machine,  Hoe's, 

216-219. 

cuts  of,  217. 

Types,  bill  of,  46. 

Black  or  Old  English  letter,  38, 40. 

directions  for  choosing,  39. 

fount  of,  47. 

gradations  of,  44. 

Italic,  invention  of,  39. 

names  and  sizes  of,  41-43. 


prices  of,  since  1800,  21. 

process  of  manufacturing,  29-33. 

proportions  of,  44,  45. 

Roman,  invention  of,  38. 

specimens  of,  42,  43. 

Typographic  Advertiser,  17. 
Typographical  errors,  a  blemish,  179. 
peculiarities,  ancient,  13. 

TJNDERLAYiNa  old  Stereotype  plates,  250. 
Underlays,  when    proper  on    cylinder 

presses,  249,  250. 
Uniformity  in  colours,  how  to  secure,  234. 

in  ipacing  essential,  112. 

Unlocking  forms,  precautions  in,  190. 
Upper-case  sorts,  48. 

Van  der  Mey's  method  of  stereotyping, 

21. 
Variations  from  copy  chargeable,  192. 
Varnish,  the  common  menstruum  for 

colours,  264. 
Vignettes,  how  to  prepare  on  the  press 


"Warehouse  Book,  form  of,  271. 
department,  271-275. 


Warehouseman,  duties  of,  271. 
Warping  of  a  cut,  how  to  cure,  261. 

how  to  prevent,  261. 

Washing  forms,  directions  for,  235. 
Washington  press,  how  to  set  up,  222 

invented  by  Samuel  Rust,  212 

illustrated,  212. 


336 


INDEX.  . 


Watts,  John,  19. 

"Wells's  job  pro  sses,  220. 

W-ot  paper,  how  to  be  protected  over- 
night, 235. 

Wetting  paper,  directions  for,  226-228. 

drawing  and  plate  paper,  227. 

Wetting,  rules  for  giving  out  paper  for, 
272,  273. 

Wetting-trough,  how  to  be  made,  226. 

White,  Elihu,  founder  in  New  York,  18. 

White  pages,  how  to  be  treated,  230. 

Wood-cuts,  how  to  prepare  on  the  press, 
258-262. 


Wood-cuts,  how  to  wash,  261. 

how  to  take  proof  of,  261,  262. 

Wood  type,  how  to  be  cared  for,  270. 
Woollen  blankets,  needless  when  new 

type  is  used,  228,  245. 
Words  and  phrases,  foreign,  312-326. 
Working  in  pocket  unsatisfactory,  203. 
Works,  how  to  manage  hurried,  202. 
Wrinkles  in  paper,  how  to  remove,  234. 

Yellow  ink,  how  to  produce,  265. 

Zodiacal  signs,  62. 


ET    FACTA    EST    LUX. 


ELECTROTTPED  BY  L.  JOHNSON  ft  CO. 

PHILADELPHIA. 

PRINTSD   BY  JAMES   B.  R0DGER8. 


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